Provides you with all the information and planning suggestions you will need if your student plans to attend college. You will also be able to look up college programs geared especially for individuals with disabilities and what is required for admission.

Introduction

A number of years ago, students with disabilities had limited choices when it came to choosing a college or university that could provide accommodations. With the advent of the Americans with Disabilities Act, and the disabilities rights movement, accommodations for students with disabilities became commonplace. Now, one is able to apply to several different types of postsecondary educational institutions.

Colleges and Career Education

Colleges offer an opportunity for individuals with disabilities to continue their education and earn tangible evidence of education such as a certificate or degree. Junior and community colleges offer a variety of courses that, upon successful completion of the prescribed courses, may lead to a certificate or associate’s degree. Community colleges are publicly funded, have either no or low-cost tuition, and offer a wide range of programs, including vocational and occupational courses. They exist in or near many communities; generally the only admissions requirement is a high school diploma or its equivalent. Junior colleges are usually privately supported, and the majority provides programs in the liberal arts field. Four-year colleges and universities offer programs of study that lead to a bachelor’s degree after successful completion of four years of prescribed course work.

The Law and Its Impact

In high school, the school district was responsible for providing any or all support services necessary for an individual with disabilities to participate in the educational process. The college or university does not have the same legal obligation. They are required by law to provide any reasonable accommodation that may be necessary for those with disabilities to have equal access to educational opportunities and services available to peers without disabilities, if requested.

Title II of the ADA covers state-funded schools such as universities, community colleges, and vocational schools. Title III covers private colleges and vocational schools. If a school receives federal dollars, regardless of whether it is private or public, it is also covered by the regulation of Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, requiring schools to make their programs accessible to qualified students with disabilities.

Under the provisions of Section 504, universities and colleges may not:

limit the number of students with disabilities
make preadmission inquiries as to whether an applicant is disabled
exclude a qualified student with a disability from a course of study
discriminate in administering scholarships, fellowships and so on, on the basis of a disability
establish rules or policies that may adversely affect students with disabilities

For college students with disabilities, academic adjustments may include adaptations in the way specific courses are conducted, the use of auxiliary equipment, and support staff and modifications in academic requirements. These modifications may include:

removing architectural barriers
providing services such as readers, qualified interpreters, or note takers for deaf or hard-of-hearing students
providing modifications, substitutions, or waivers of courses, major fields of study, or degree requirements on a case-by-case basis
allowing extra time to complete exams
using alternative forms for students to demonstrate course mastery
permitting the use of computer software programs or other assistive technological devices to facilitate test-taking and study skills

After reading this section, you should understand the following:

Colleges and career education opportunities
The law and its impact
Disability-related support services
Financial aid
Issues to consider when looking into postsecondary education
Checklist for assessing colleges for accessibility
Accommodations for specific disabilities
Distance learning

Disability-Related Support Services

One of the most important things to consider is to have the student become familiar with the colleges or institution’s disability related support services. Every college will have someone or several individuals whose responsibility is to oversee the needs and accommodations for these students. Making contact is a crucial part since this type of support will facilitate any problems or concerns in transitioning to college. The need for this contact is also very important in light of the many difficulties faced by some college students with disabilities.

The Northern New York Post Secondary Transition Team (1998) lists several common difficulties faced by some college students with disabilities.

READING
1. Reading too slowly or too fast
2. Difficulty understanding what was read
3. Difficulty remembering what was read
4. Difficulty identifying important information
5. Trouble sounding out new words
6. Difficulty turning pages
7. Difficulty with print size and/or format

WRITTEN LANGUAGE
1. Difficulty using proper sentence structure
2. Misspelling words
3. Difficulty copying correctly from a book or blackboard
4. Writing too slowly or too fast
5. Poor penmanship
6. Able to express ideas verbally better than in writing

ORAL LANGUAGE
1. Difficulties concentrating on conversations
2. Difficulty in expressing ideas
3. Writing better than speaking
4. Difficulty speaking in a grammatically correct manner
5. Difficulty telling a story in proper sequence

MATHEMATICS
1. Difficulty remembering basic facts
2. Reversing numbers
3. Confusing operational symbols
4. Copying problems incorrectly from one line to another
5. Difficulty following the sequence of operational processes
6. Difficulty understanding and retaining abstract concepts
7. Difficulty comprehending word problems
8. Reasoning deficits

ORGANIZATION AND STUDY SKILLS
1. Time management difficulties
2. Slow starting and completing tasks
3. Difficulty remembering information
4. Difficulty following oral and/or written directions
5. Difficulty with organization
6. Short attention span
7. Difficulty focusing
8. Inefficiently using reference materials

Small (1996) indicates that there are many colleges and universities in the United States that have good track records when it comes to accommodating learning disabilities. The quality of any given college’s response is subject to the vagaries of funding, administrative fiat and the current image an institution is trying to promote. What was once an effective, coordinated support program one year may turn into a vague assortment of academic support services the next. The commercially available guidebooks to colleges and universities for students with learning disabilities do a fine job capturing most of the institutions and what they offer the students.

Small (1996) address the services/accommodations that may be available to students with disabilities at selected colleges and universities:

Preferential or early registration
Counsel on which courses to take given an instructor’s style and sensitivity to learning disabilities
Reduced or redistributed course load (e.g. not taking a number of heavy reading courses simultaneously)
Skills development and remediation (reading, spelling, writing, math)
Modified exam arrangements (oral, untimed, extended time, scribe, use of word processor for essays)
Assistance with note-taking (note-taking buddy, taping lectures)
Course waivers and substitutions (foreign language, sometimes in math
Assistance with proofreading
Use of calculators, spelling aces, lap computers in classes
Taped textbooks, readers, electronic text readers (text recognition synthesized speech machines)
Assistance with developing oral expression
Speech and language specialists
Assistance with personal organization
Assistance with time management
Writing, reading, math, study skills centers (be careful, some have personnel who know little about the needs of students with learning disabilities)
Support for students on medication (e.g. students with ADHD)
Social skills training
Training and support in developing and maintaining motivation and attention

Social Skills

Some students may have problems with social skills due to their inconsistent perceptual abilities. They may be unable to detect the difference between a joking wink and a disgusted glance or notice the difference between sincere and sarcastic comments, or other subtle changes in tone of voice. These difficulties in interpreting nonverbal messages may result in lower self-esteem for some and may cause them to have trouble meeting people, working with others, and making friends.

Many college campuses have an Office for Disabled Student Services or Office of Special Services. Others have designated the Dean of Students or some other administrator to provide this information and to coordinate necessary services and accommodations. At vocational schools or other training programs, the person responsible for disability services can usually provide this information.

There are also many publications that can tell more about the policies and programs that individual colleges and universities have established to address the needs of students with disabilities.

Financial Aid

Another major question regarding post secondary education or training opportunities is the availability of financial aid to help pay for tuition and living expenses. Obtaining financial aid can be a complex process, because laws are amended and eligibility requirements, policies, and disbursement of government funds change each year. Most money called “financial aid” is available to those studying only above the high school level (thus, financial aid is usually not available for adult education). The student must usually demonstrate the ability to benefit from the education or training in order to receive traditional financial aid.

The financial aid system is based upon a partnership between the student, parents, postsecondary educational institutions, state and federal government, and available private resources. For the student with a disability, the partnership may be extended to include a Vocational Rehabilitation Agency and the Social Security Administration. Such a partnership requires cooperation of all and an understanding by each of their responsibilities within the financial aid process.

Heath (2001) created a pre-college checklist for students with disabilities. This checklist is shown below:

PRE-COLLEGE FINANCIAL AID CHECKLIST

During the Junior Year of High School:

____Explore college profiles and programs. If possible, visit the colleges that most interest you.
____Investigate financial aid opportunities with your high school counselor.
____Write to the college(s) of your choice for applications and financial aid information.
____Begin the application process with Vocational Rehabilitation and/or Social Security.
____If you are involved in Special Education services at your high school, be sure that your Individual Transition Plan (ITP) includes your academic and vocational goals.
____Collect information and document expenses for completing the financial aid forms.

By the Senior Year of High School:

____Obtain the FAFSA from your high school counselor. Using the most accurate income tax information possible, complete the form.
____Mail the financial aid form as soon as possible after January 1, since forms postmarked before then do not count. (Be sure to check the application deadline for each college to
which you plan to apply.)
____Complete and return to the college(s) all application materials and any financial aid documents requested by the college by the date indicated by the institution (usually February/March).
____Keep track of the date on which you sent in each form. You should receive a Student Aid Report (SAR) within four weeks. If you have not received any response within four weeks, call the student aid center at the number listed on the FAFSA.
____When the SAR arrives, contact the financial aid offices of the college(s) on your list to see if they need a copy of it.
____Keep in touch with the college financial aid offices during the course of the application process to verify that they have received your application data and that they are processing your aid package.
____If you are a VR client, be sure that your counselor is in touch with the financial aid offices at the colleges(s) on your list. Be on time and accurate in filling out the application forms. If possible, have a third party read them and check for accuracy. Keep at least one photocopy of each completed form for your own record in case problems arise.

What Is Financial Aid

Financial aid is a system of financial assistance to help individuals meet their educational expenses when their own resources are not sufficient. Four types of aid are available:

1. Grants—Aid that generally does not have to be repaid.
2. Loans—Money borrowed to cover school costs, which must be repaid (usually with interest) over a specified period of time (usually after the student has left school or graduated).
3. Work-study—Employment that enables a student to earn money toward a portion of
school costs during or between periods of enrollment.
4. Scholarships—Gifts and awards based on a student’s academic achievement, background, or other criteria

The Federal Government contributes to all three types of student financial aid. These programs are explained in a booklet called The Student Guide: Financial Aid From the U.S. Department of Education. The programs described in the booklet are:

• Federal Pell Grants
• Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grants
• (SEOG)
• Federal Work-Study (FW-S)
• Federal Perkins Loans
• Federal Family Education Loans (FFEL) including:
• Federal Stafford Loans (subsidized and unsubsidized)
• Federal PLUS Loans

All of these programs are based upon financial need of the student and his or her family, except the unsubsidized Stafford and PLUS programs.

What Expenses Are Considered Disability Related?

In addition to the financial aid that one may receive for tuition, room, and board, there may be times when additional expenses, which may require further financial assistance, are incurred.. These may include:

special equipment related to the disability and its maintenance
expenses of services for personal use or study such as readers, interpreters, note takers, or personal care attendants
transportation necessary to pursue an academic program, if regular transportation is not accessible
medical expenses relating directly to the individual’s disability that are not covered by insurance

Students should be sure to inform the aid administrator of disability-related expenses that may previously have been covered by the family budget. These may include food and veterinary bills for dog guides, batteries for hearing aids and a telecommunication device for the deaf (TDD) (now called a Typed Text QTT), or the cost of recruiting and training readers or personal care attendants. Often, leaving home necessitates the purchase of new or additional equipment that will allow the student to be independent at school. Students with disabilities should seek assistance from the Office of Disability Support Services and/or Financial Aid Office to determine disability-related expenses.

Regardless of whether the student is able to obtain any special equipment or services through the institution or elsewhere, it is still important to let the financial aid administrator know of any anticipated expenses. Such information is considered in the determination of the student’s financial need, on which all aid decisions are based.

Vocational Rehabilitation and Financial Aid

The local Vocational Rehabilitation Agency has VR counselors who can help a person with a disability determine eligibility for assistance. The VR program is an eligibility program, rather than an entitlement program. To be eligible for services, an individual must have a disability that is a substantial handicap to employment and must have potential for employment as a result of rehabilitation services. The primary goal of a VR counselor is to make the client employable; therefore, the counselor will look closely at a student’s educational plans in terms of job potential. While initial counseling and evaluation are open to all, the counselor may determine that a client is not eligible for other services based on state agency policies governing economic need, order of selection, and other policies of the agency.

Among the services that may be provided by VR Agencies to a student who is a client are:

tuition expenses
reader services for persons who are blind or learning disabled
interpreter services for people who are hearing impaired; individually prescribed aids and devices, which are authorized in advance in an Individualized Written Rehabilitation Program (I WRP) developed jointly by the client and the counselor
telecommunications, sensory, and other technological aids and devices
other goods and services, which help render an individual who is handicapped employable.

The above items may differ from state to state, or be subject to a test of a client’s ability to pay or the use of available resources from another social service agency before a commitment of VR funds is made. To understand why there are differences among and between states’ VR programs, one needs to know that the U.S. Department of Education, Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA) administers the Rehabilitation Act, but each participating state administers its own program through the provisions of a state plan that has been developed under the guidelines of the Act and that has been approved by RSA.

Issues to Consider When Looking Into Postsecondary Education

1. What are admission requirements?
2. What is the grade point average? ACT? SAT?
3. Are there special accommodations for individuals with disabilities to take entrance exams?
4. Are there special incentive programs?
5. Is there a disabled student service office on campus? How does one contact the office? Does it have a full-time person there or is it part-time?
6. What kind of documentation is required to verify disabilities?
7. Is there a disabled student organization on campus? How to contact them.
8. How are the faculty informed of the necessary accommodations, if needed?
9. Is tutoring available? Is it individualized or group? Is there a cost involved?
10. Are note takers and readers available? Is there a cost involved? How are they trained?
11. Is it possible to arrange for tape recorder classes, computers, untimed testing, and test readers?
12. Is it possible to relocate classes to more accessible sites?
13. What is the college’s policy regarding course substitutes or waiver of curriculum requirements?
14. Are there developmental courses available? In what areas?

Checklist for Assessing Colleges for Accessibility

When looking for the right college, make sure to find what services are available through the Office of Services for Students with Disabilities on each campus. The office may be located in the Office of Student Affairs, or it may be listed independently. It is essential to obtain just as much information as possible about services for students with disabilities, and services that pertain to particular disabilities, before beginning classes.

The following are samples of questions you may want to help parents and the student consider when speaking to a college representative:

1. What services are offered (for example, readers, note takers, bus service)? Are there fees?
2. What are the names of the director and staff people connected to these services? Is there a document that describes the various services?
3. Can you introduce me to a student with my disability (or another disability) so I can learn from that person’s experience? What arrangements do other students make in the same situation as mine?
4. Who is available to assist in finding services on and off campus (for example, accessible apartments, restaurants, other)?
5. Is there an office for the local Vocational Rehabilitation agency on campus? If not, where is it?
6. What are the local organizations for individuals with disabilities such as mine? What services can I get through them (for example, Center for Independent Living, Personal Care Association listings)?
7. How many students with disabilities attend this college until graduation? What history is there of my major department making accommodations?
8. If accommodations are ever denied, what is the procedure to follow to contest the decision?
9. How early does a qualified student have to start to make arrangements for putting textbooks on audiotape?

Accommodations for Specific Disabilities

The student should be sufficiently knowledgeable about his or her disability to address every concern, or potential concern, with those who will be offering services.

Visual Impairment

Does the college offer training in finding one’s way around campus? If not, how do I get the training; do you have a list of qualified instructors?
Are readers paid or volunteer? Who pays? (Whether using a volunteer or paid reader, assess whether your needs are being provided for, and find a gracious but clear way to communicate to them if they are not. Ask the office: “Do you help locate readers? Do you have any suggestions for finding them?”

Are large-print computer programs available to me? What other assistive technology is available? Where is the equipment located? Is there training to help me use the computers and accompanying software?
What accommodations are there for taking exams? How and where are they usually taken? What responsibility do I have in the whole process? Can I work out my own arrangements if I so choose? Can I get the exams in an alternative medium, like large print, or Braille, or recorded?
Is campus transportation accessible for me? Is there campus or city public transportation and is it accessible to me?
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Hearing Impairment

Will the Office of Services for Students with Disabilities arrange for interpreters? If so, how do I set that up with my class schedule? If not, will they provide assistance in locating them? Who pays?
Are oral and sign language interpreters available?
Are note takers available to record lectures for me, or do I have to find my own? Are they paid, and who pays? What is the procedure for payment?
Does the campus have TDDs (Telecommunication Devices for the Deaf, sometimes called Text Telephones)?
What are the provisions for safety in the dormitory in case of fire or other emergency? Do dormitory telephones have the capacity to have the volume turned up?

Is captioning of speakers while they are speaking available?
What amplification equipment is available? Can I borrow any of it for my own use?

Mobility Impairment

Is there accessibility to buildings, classrooms, laboratories, and dormitories?
How wide the residence hall doorways and what are is the accessibility of the bathrooms?
Will there be any special problems or assistance with class registration?
Will anyone assist me in arranging my schedule to include the required classes and still have enough time to go from one classroom in one building to another classroom in another building?
Will I be able to reach and use all the equipment in the laboratory?
If not, what arrangements must I make?
If I need special adaptations to access computers, who will provide them?
If I need adaptations to access the library catalog system, who will arrange for them?
If the college has a large campus, is there accessible transportation, such as a lift-equipped van, to get from one area to another?
Are there curb cuts and smooth sidewalks that I can manage with a wheelchair?
Is driver evaluation and training available?
If my wheelchair needs repair, can I get it done locally?
Is there a dormitory or other residence that can assist people who require help with daily activities such as eating or dressing?

Learning Disability

Remember that academic accommodations are based on documented type of learning disability and its severity. Your diagnostic papers must be written by a licensed medical or psychological examiner. Subtest standard scores must be listed as legal evidence of severity. Your school skills levels will not be sufficient, nor will an old Individualized Education Plan (IEP) contract.

There is a high probability that whatever the accommodations recommended by the examiner, they will not exactly meet your needs in college. In some classes you will need no accommodations but in others you may face demands on your learning disability that no one thought of. For these reasons, it is imperative you understand your learning disability thoroughly enough to explain how it works to a person unfamiliar with learning disabilities.

While the laws allow accommodations for diagnosed disabilities, the law does not entitle anyone to misrepresent his or her needs for the purpose of gaining advantage over people without disabilities. The law probably will not protect past accommodations in a different academic circumstance unless the need can be documented. If the student finds him/herself in a resistant environment within a college or university after he/she begins attending, he/she will need to have available his/her diagnostic papers and the current request for accommodations in order to be successful in advocating for his/her needs. Other things to consider include:

Are academic accommodations uniform for everyone, or are they individualized according to the diagnostic papers (for example, note takers, extended test time)?
Are the students with more severe learning disabilities expected to manage their own lives (for example, getting homework in on time, money management, school schedules)? Who is available to help when help is needed?
How early does a qualified student have to start making arrangements for special exam conditions with the professor?
If the learning disability causes more trouble than anticipated, can the course load be reworked?
Are there counseling services available in case a student gets overwhelmed?
May I have additional time for tests? Who arranges for the extra time?
Do I do it, or does the professor, the Office of Services for Students with Disabilities, or the Dean?
May the student tape class lectures?

Heiser (2000) indicates that the following questions should be considered in order to find the “best match” for the student, the post-secondary institution and the LD support services.

1. Does your son or daughter qualify for a learning support service college program?
2. Have his/her high school courses prepared the student to successfully compete in college?
3. Are there special admission procedures?
4. Are there additional fees for the LD support services program?
5. What kind of college (small or large) and location (urban or rural) would provide the best opportunity for academic success?
6. Is the learning support services program “specifically” directed toward the LD student? Are there services available to handicapped students and the general student body?
7. How many students are enrolled in the program and what is the proportion of LD students to the general student population?
8. When was the program started?
9. How long have the personnel been in the program?
10. Does the program have faculty and administrative support?
11. Who does the academic advising for the LD student?
12. Are the academic advisors (those persons who help the student select courses) familiar with the goals and procedures of the learning support services program and the general characteristics and needs of the LD student in particular?
13. Does the institution have course waivers, e.g., foreign language requirements?
14. Are special courses required of LD students? Do they carry college credits? Can these credits be used toward graduation?
15. Are there remedial or developmental courses available?
16. Are students in this program required to remain in the program throughout college?
17. Is counseling available and what kind, e.g., personal, academic and career, group or individual, and is it required or optional?
18. Is there assistance available for improving social/interpersonal skills?
19. Are there support groups available for the LD student?
20. What kind of tutoring is available to the student?
21. Are all textbooks available on tape?
22. What kind of additional resources are available, e.g., word processors, tape recorders, etc.?
23. Are students permitted to tape lectures?
24. Is there a summer “pre-college” session available for entering freshmen?
25. Should the student visit more than one college before making a decision?

Chronic Health Condition

What medical services are available locally? Are there rehabilitation units in local hospitals?

How can the student arrange my schedule to accommodate fatigue?
Can arrangements be made for a personal care attendant if the student needs one?

The answers to these questions will give the student an idea of where college is going to be easy and where it is going to be hard, in terms of accommodations. The student may need to change some strategies, and he/she may need to push for support in areas where the services do not appear to meet his/her needs. The more the student knows in advance, the more effectively the student will begin, and the more effective he/she will be in beginning this process.

Distance Learning and Adults with Disabilities

Off-campus education, or distance learning, is becoming increasingly popular in the adult or higher education community. To reach the growing number of nontraditional students (those who are other than 18-23 years old, embarking on postsecondary education directly from high school), some postsecondary institutions have become decentralized, having campuses in several locations. A result of decentralization is that education can be available to those unable to attend classes during the day or on a specific campus due to work, family, or other commitments.

Distance learning includes courses offered by educational institutions, businesses, or other entities away from the regular campus site by computer conferencing, cable TV, telephone conference calls, videocassettes, correspondence courses, or any combination of these. Some courses may be accessed by the student at home. Others may be offered at a public library, business headquarters, factory meeting room, or other community site. Such nontraditional settings, or “schools without walls” can provide nontraditional students with the flexibility they need in order to earn college degrees or obtain training for new careers. One result of the diverse demographic patterns emerging at this century’s end is that a growing number of adults with disabilities are seeking educational and career opportunities.

Distance learning is an option for adults with disabilities who are unable to participate in regular campus classes. Distance learning programs constitute a part of the system of lifelong learning, which has been steadily expanding for many years. Change itself has become the rule, not the exception. Educational services are moving from the classroom at formal institutions of higher education to sites in businesses and community agencies, as well as being totally off-site, using electronic technology.

According to the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education (1985) over two-thirds of organized learning opportunities for adults are provided by a diverse array of schools and noncollegiate institutions. Not only are the higher education institutions changing, but so are the learners. Increasing numbers are attending on a part-time basis and view learning as a lifelong process.

Students with disabilities may participate in distance learning opportunities for various reasons. Some students may be unable to leave home or hospital. Others may participate in such programs to increase flexibility regarding scheduling and to increase control over the environment in which they perform their academic work. Since institutions offer different types of distance learning programs, students are advised to investigate the options.

Enrolling in a Distance Learning Program Selecting a Program

Distance learners are strongly advised to be sure the school is accredited. An accredited institution has earned recognition from an appropriate accrediting commission or association that determined the institution has met acceptable levels of educational quality. Be sure that the student checks with the institution concerning its accreditation before he/she enrolls in any program. In addition, all states have an agency overseeing higher education that can be consulted about accreditation.

When choosing a particular postsecondary institution, students should be aware of the importance of academic advising, and ask whether it will be offered through computer, telephone, or in person. Academic advisors for distance learners are usually available to discuss degree plans, course selection, prerequisite courses, course content, and preparation of portfolios, graduate school, study skills, and other areas of concern. Students and advisors should be able to develop a degree program plan that outlines how the student will complete all or part of the remaining academic requirements. Most advisors realize that adults have numerous responsibilities, and they are usually ready to accommodate varied schedules and widely differing needs.

Access to the Student Services at the College

Many individuals with disabilities who access distance learning programs do not realize that they can use and benefit from the institution’s student services, through the Dean of Students, Office of Special Services, or Office of Disability Support Services. To obtain such accommodations as print materials in alternate formats extended time for completing the work, or use of an interpreter or note taker, students with disabilities must disclose and document their disability to the Disability Support Services Office. Students who are not able to visit the office are encouraged to fax or mail a letter of application, resume, or other documentation to the office, so a career counselor can provide feedback. Students with disabilities have been able to perform practice interviews over the telephone with a career counselor. Students may also communicate with the campus financial aid office.

Students in distance learning programs should be able to access most of the programs in student services at community colleges and universities. Some distance learning programs operate from very small offices and are themselves not able to offer extensive student services, but will try to accommodate by referring the student to the services offered to on-campus students. To increase the success of students enrolled in distance learning programs, faculty and administrators are encouraged to be creative when seeking to provide academic and student services to students with disabilities.

As demand for education by persons with disabilities continues to grow, distance learning will be an important factor in facilitating access. Many adults with disabilities who have already successfully completed a traditional program can also participate in distance learning programs as a means of continuing lifelong learning.

Conclusion

One of the major goals of the transition process is to facilitate an individual’s arrival at his or her maximum potential. Within the last ten years, the opportunities for an individual with disabilities to achieve higher education have expanded greatly. Every year, more and more colleges and universities develop the necessary programs that allow these individuals to participate in this educational environment.

References and Suggested Readings

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