Inclusion Series- How Culture Affects Inclusion: A Literature Review

By Rebecca Webster

Inclusion and cultural diversity are two societal factors that are simultaneously increasing here, in America. According to the National Center of Education Statistics (2019), 50.7 million students are estimated to attend public schools across the country, including elementary, middle, and high schools. Of those students, about 10% are classified as English Language Learners (ELLs) and approximately 7% identified as having a disability. As these numbers continue to grow, so do the unique and individual needs of the students’ and their families. To make inclusion successful, parents and teachers must be able to work together to ensure the needs of all students are being met both at home and in school. This includes recognizing and acknowledging cultural differences, and using that information to better support the families and the student going forward.  The literature reviewed in this paper will take a closer look at the various views of disability and inclusion, as well as the effects these beliefs have on student performance in schools from 6 different cultures. Recommendations for successful inclusion across all cultures going forward will also be addressed.

Abstract

Inclusion and cultural diversity are two societal factors that are simultaneously increasing here, in America. According to the National Center of Education Statistics (2019), 50.7 million students are estimated to attend public schools across the country, including elementary, middle, and high schools. Of those students, about 10% are classified as English Language Learners (ELLs) and approximately 7% identified as having a disability. As these numbers continue to grow, so do the unique and individual needs of the students’ and their families. To make inclusion successful, parents and teachers must be able to work together to ensure the needs of all students are being met both at home and in school. This includes recognizing and acknowledging cultural differences, and using that information to better support the families and the student going forward.  The literature reviewed in this paper will take a closer look at the various views of disability and inclusion, as well as the effects these beliefs have on student performance in schools from 6 different cultures. Recommendations for successful inclusion across all cultures going forward will also be addressed.

Keywords: inclusion, culture, disability, special education, English Language Learners

Cultural Views of Inclusion

Here, in modern-day America, inclusion is romanticized as the celebration of everyone’s uniqueness and individuality (Sudakova & Astafyeva, 2019). Researchers in Indonesia view inclusion slightly less “romantically”, as they acknowledge the legislation in education that supports the belief in “education for all”; a statement was meant to include those with disabilities and multi-ethnicities, despite still having separate schools for those with special needs (Sheehy et al., 2019). According to a study done in Guyana on inclusion for students with learning disabilities, research shows that inclusion is arguably one of the most effective practices in providing quality education, but it certainly has its limitations (Fraser, 2017). Researchers in Austria describe Germany as having a “broad” definition of inclusion, but generally describe it as treating all students like individual learners, giving them equal opportunities to benefit from learning, thus focusing on the individual rather than the disability (Schwabb et al., 2015). According to a study done in the Republic of Korea, successful inclusion requires support and collaboration between various professionals, and relies heavily on the willingness of the general education teacher to meet the needs of all students in their classroom (Hwang & Evans, 2011). It is evident in the research that despite cultural differences and limitations, inclusion is still the ultimate goal.

Cultural Views on Disability

An author that discusses modern inclusion, including the gaps and the role of inclusion in education and in humanity itself, mentions that disability is practically a “new normal”; everyone is seen as different and unique, so inclusion is something humanity should naturally adapt to, making people with disabilities feel “normal”. In other areas, such as Indonesia, disability diagnosis is relatively new, even unheard of, considering there are many children that do not have access to education as a typically developing child; education for students with disabilities is not seen as a responsibility, let alone a right. (Sheehy et al., 2019). Most educators reported having no awareness of disabilities, specifically autism, while many residents of Indonesia believe that disability in general is a result of taboo or karmic payback (Sheehy et al., 2019). Similarly, Guyana is also still developing an inclusive education system as students with disabilities are typically served in separate schools, but two schools have since been established that are attempting inclusive education (Fraser, 2017). Collectively, the attitudes and perceptions of the citizens of Guyana in regard to people with disabilities are often negative (Fraser, 2017). It has been reported that people in the community of Nambia, Africa also view disability as a result of supernatural causes, likely to be witchcraft or inappropriate relationships with family members (Haihambo & Lightfoot, 2010). Some Israeli and Palestanian communities even view disability as an indication for “divine punishment” (Hwang & Evans, 2011).

Cultural Implications of Inclusion

As the literature has revealed, the educational practice of inclusion itself is evidently inconsistent across cultures; established in some areas, up and coming in others, and relatively nonexistent in few. Just as the views on inclusion and disability vary from culture to culture, so do the implications. Modern research claims that humanity itself is to blame for the lack of inclusion and inclusive practices; the stereotypes that have been created, society’s stigmatization surrounding disability, and the lack of creativity are characteristics that will keep humankind divided (Sudakova & Astafyeva, 2019). Educators in Indonesia believe that the stigmatization surrounding disability, as well as the belief in taboo are partially to blame for implications of inclusive education, in addition to the lack of teacher training in disability awareness (Sheehy et al., 2019). Challenges to inclusion in Guyana are a result of the lack of resources, teacher shortage, lack of specialists, negative parent attitudes, lack of effective pedagogical methods, large teacher/student ratios, and inflexible curriculum (Fraser, 2017). Although Austria reportedly does an adequate job prioritizing inclusive education, the attitudes of teachers and their willingness to implement inclusive practices has a negative effect on the rate of inclusion (Schwabb et al., 2015). In Nambia, it is believed that the cultural views surrounding disability have a significant impact on the effects of inclusion as people commonly believe disability is a result of witchcraft, punishment or gift from God, curse of the ancestors or bad omen, women allowing men to parent children that are not theirs, and sexual relations with men who are not the father of their children or of a different race (Haihambo & Lightfoot, 2010). Educators in Korea believe that the practice of inclusion is limited by inconsistent teacher attitudes and willingness to implement inclusive practices, as well as a lack of support systematically (Tobishima, 2018).

Further Recommendations for Inclusion Across Cultures

The literature surrounding cultural differences and the effects on inclusive education has been eye-opening, to say the least. However, inclusion is supported by legislation, educators, parents, and students alike, regardless of their cultural affiliation. For inclusion to be done more successfully it is going to require a shift in the mindset of humanity as a whole, maximizing on creative abilities and limitless opportunities rather than the barriers presented by disability (Sudakova & Astafyeva, 2019). Teachers are going to require more training on inclusive practices and disability awareness in areas where there is unawareness or stigmatization; an inclusive community project should be developed for areas where there is belief in taboo and myths (Sheehy et al., 2019). A better understanding of where teachers are at regarding their perception of inclusive education, as well as collaboration with policymakers in areas that require focus on the clarification and implementation of the law (Fraser, 2017). Successful inclusion is going to require ongoing collaboration and teamwork of the general education and special education teachers, as well as changes in attitudes, beliefs, and behavior of both students and educators (Schwabb et al., 2015). Namibia is recommending a sensitization campaign to help with the mindset of the residents regarding the stigmatizations of disability, as well as counseling programs, support groups, and the development and implementation of inclusive policies (Haihambo & Lightfoot, 2010). Results in Korea demonstrated that general education teachers will need to change their attitudes in regards to inclusion, as well as clarification of the roles for educators involved, change in educational values and philosophy, and educational training in inclusive skills and knowledge (Hwang & Evans, 2011). If each culture is willing to take responsibility for their role in inclusive education and become an active member of an inclusive society, education can continue to adapt to the diverse needs of all learners. Simultaneously, educators and families will continue to learn more about one another and inclusivity as a whole. This will allow each team member in the child’s education to better support each other, the community, and, most importantly, the student.

References

Fast Facts: Back to school statistics (372). (n.d.). Https://Nces.Ed.Gov/Fastfacts/Display.Asp?Id=372. Retrieved April 30, 2021, from nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp

Fraser, S. (2017). The Path to Inclusion for Children with Learning Disabilities in Guyana: Challenges and Future Considerations. Journal of International Special Needs Education, 20(2), 79–89. doi.org/10.9782/2159-4341-20.2.79

Haihambo, C., & Lightfoot, E. (2010). Cultural Beliefs Regarding People with Disabilities in Namibia: Implications for the Inclusion of People with Disabilities. International Journal of Special Education, 25(3), 76–87. files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1085154.pdf

Hwang, Y., & Evans, D. (2011). Attitudes towards Inclusion: Gaps between Belief and Practice. International Journal of Special Education, 26(1), 136–146. files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ921198.pdf

Schwabb, S., Holzinger, A., Krammer, M., Gebhardt, M., & Hessels, M. G. (2015). Teaching practices and beliefs about inclusion of general and special needs teachers in Austria. Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 13(2), 237–254. files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1085154.pdf

Sheehy, K., Kaye, H., & Rofiah, K. (2019). Indonesian Educators’ Knowledge and Beliefs about Teaching Children with Autism. ATHENS JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, 7(1), 77–98. doi.org/10.30958/aje.7-1-4

Sudakova, N. E., & Astafyeva, O. N. (2019). Inclusion as a Modern Cultural Universal: Reflection and Conceptualization. Journal of Social Studies Education Research, 10(3), 212–235. doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2011