December 2021 – Special Educator e-Journal

Ready for Inclusion? A Phenomenology on Elementary Teachers’ Experiences with Inclusion in the Least Restrictive Environment

Deborah L. Boldt

Robyn Cooper

Catherine Gillespie

Darcie Whitlow

 

Abstract

Discussion and focus on past practices by school districts in implementing inclusion has been a topic in education for decades. Prior to today’s views, the general belief was that children with special educational needs were different from their peers and, therefore, required separated education outside the mainstream school. However, there is a lack of research on focused efforts to properly implement inclusion programming in the least restrictive environment; this study addressed that gap. This qualitative study, using teachers’ experiences in combination with the Strange and Banning Environmental Model, contributed to deepening current understanding of inclusion. Findings from this study indicated themes in the physical, aggregate, organizational, and construct environments. This manuscript concludes with a discussion of the expectations for inclusion programming and the implications of not properly implementing inclusivity for students with and without a disability.

Keywords: phenomenology, least restrictive, general education, inclusion, special education

Ready for Inclusion? A Phenomenology on Elementary Teachers’ Experiences
with Inclusion in the Least Restrictive Environment

Today, students with and without disabilities are being integrated in general education environments. The general belief was that children with special educational needs were different from their peers and that their social and learning needs were so different to those of other children that they required separated education outside the mainstream school (Griffin & Shevlin, 2011, p. 38). So, for decades, special schools were the focus of the education of students with special needs (Pijl et al., 1997).

Before inclusion, the term “mainstreaming” was used along with the many interpretations of how mainstreaming was implemented. First, mainstreaming was considered “a form of educational programming that integrates special needs and non-special needs children in regular classrooms” (Meisels, 1978, p. 1). Then, mainstreaming was considered a “setting where all children share the same resources and opportunities for learning on a full-time basis” (Wang 1981, p. 196). Lastly, according to Rogers (1993), mainstreaming was defined as selective placement of special education students in one or more regular education classes. Today, the term mainstreaming is now viewed as providing the same educational opportunities for all children, regardless of a disability.

Implementation of inclusion has changed throughout the history of special education, along with the location of how the instruction is being delivered. The location students receive instruction was identified as belonging to three different types of educational classrooms in the public school systems: 1) general education classrooms, the primary classroom in which most students receive their education; 2) a special education classroom, often referred to as a self-contained classroom, which requires a special education certified teacher along with paraprofessionals/teacher’s aids as needed to meet the students’ needs; and 3) the resource room, where students receive specialized instruction for specific skills (mathematics, reading, speech, etc.) (Friend & Bursuck, 2009; Wang & Birch, 1984; Yell et al., 1998). In past practice and even today, the resource classroom involved a teacher with a specific certification who would work with the child for a designated amount of time, before the child returns to the general education classroom. However, the expectation today involves integrating students into the general education classroom to receive the same educational opportunities, no matter what their disability might be.

Defining the same educational opportunities for all students could be viewed differently based on the background of the teacher as well as their exposure and experiences in the educational field. Unfortunately, many teachers are not taught different methods to deliver instruction to students with special needs, let alone include students with special needs in their general education classroom (Hyunjeong et al., 2014). For example, Cook (2002) states that “if pre-service teachers do not possess the knowledge and skills to implement inclusion appropriately, the included students with disabilities in their future classes will certainly have diminished opportunities to attain desired outcomes regardless of teachers’ attitudes toward inclusive reforms” (p. 263). Receiving inclusion education training, whether pre-service or after requiring licensure, is crucial in constructing the teacher’s ability to cope with individuals with special needs and ensuring the overall success for the fidelity of inclusion.

Qualitative research on inclusion in the least restrictive environment revealed that teachers experienced frustration, distress, resentment, and a lack of confidence in their ability to meet the needs of all their students (Avramidis et al., 2002; Barned et al., 2011; Chhabra et al., 2010; De Boer et al., 2011). Thus, in order for schools to become more successful in including students with disabilities, instructional changes were considered. However, altering student learning goals, finding activities that interest students, and arranging accommodations for students were challenging. Furthermore, class size created difficulties for the teacher to take care of all students, making the practice of inclusive education a challenge (Alhassan, 2014). Therefore, utilizing the Strange and Banning Environmental Model (2015) to examine the fidelity of inclusion in K–12 schools and classrooms allowed a deeper understanding on experiences of teachers implementing inclusive practices with students with disabilities in the least restrictive environment. Strange and Banning (2015) developed a comprehensive model to create student-friendly and learning supportive environments. Strange and Banning (2001) stated that human environments all have the following key components that “serve to prod, bend, and shape behaviors” (p. 5):

• Physical condition, design, and layout
• Characteristics of the people who inhabit them
• Organizational structures related to their purposes and goals
• Inhabitants’ collective perceptions or constructions of the context and culture of the setting. (p. 5)

Strange and Banning divided these characteristics into four specific environments that they labeled the physical environment, the aggregate environment, the organization environment, and the socially constructed environment. These four environments provided a conceptual framework for inclusion throughout this study.

Method

Implementing a qualitative design approach, the study focused on the essence of the phenomenon – the experiences from teachers with fidelity of inclusion programming and practices. This approach focused on participants and discovered what they may have in common in their everyday teaching environment. Through a phenomenological approach, the study sought to understand these experiences of the fidelity of inclusion through the perception of the participant. In line with the qualitative research method, data was collected until no new information or no new insights occurred, i.e., until data saturation was reached (Fusch & Ness, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Data collected from semi-structured interviews, observations, and document analyses were used for this qualitative phenomenological study, which assisted to triangulate its findings. A prepared interview guide was used to ensure that the same general areas of information were touched upon with each interviewee. The guide kept the interviews focused but still permitted a degree of freedom and adaptability to encourage interviewees to provide relevant information. Open-ended questions were used throughout the interview to allow participants to respond freely to questions.

Participants

Participants for this study were recruited through purposeful sampling or, more specifically, social media platforms (e.g., Facebook, Messenger, and LinkedIn). This included those who were teaching fourth and fifth-grade general education and started their teaching career in the general education classroom no earlier than the 2013-2014 school year. The lead author of the study worked in a different school district and town than the participants and so, prior to the study, did not have a relationship with these individuals. Once the participants were selected, contact was made, participants were provided a full overview of the study along with documents regarding the study, and permission to participate in the study was obtained. For confidentiality purposes, all participants were given pseudonyms. The participants for this study were set in six different locations. All six elementary locations were examined to discover how inclusion programming took place during classroom instruction time. Of the six locations, School #1 included grades preschool–5 and a student population of 300–400, School #2 included grades 3–5, with approximately 200–300 students, School #3 included grades 3–4 and a student population of approximately 200–300, School #4 included grades 3–5, with a student population of approximately 200–300, School #5 included grades preschool–6, with a student population of 556, and School #6 included grades preschool–6, with a student population of approximately 200–300. School #3 and #4 had a student-teacher ratio of 25:1, School #1, 15.1, School #5, 13:1, and School #6, 11:1.

Kelly

At the time the study was being conducted, Kelly was completing her first full year teaching 5th grade at Tiger Elementary. Her highest degree at the time was a bachelor’s. Kelly is originally from a small town with a population of about 5,000–7,000. She has a twin sister and a younger brother. Her mother is a nurse and her father is a farmer. Kelly is the only teacher in her immediate family. However, her aunt is a teacher.

Kelly noted that she had a nice childhood and, while growing up, both her parents taught her to have strong self-discipline and a positive work ethic on the farm. There was not a defining moment when she knew that she wanted to be a teacher. She remembered her mother purchasing practice math books for her and her sister. Kelly also remembered collecting together all her stuffed animals to teach them multiplication. However, during her sophomore year in college, while taking music education classes, she switched to the teaching program. Kelly loved the classes that she was taking, and her professors were really easy to connect with. So, from the beginning of her sophomore year, she knew she was in the right place. During her teaching practicum, Kelly was introduced to Tiger Elementary. After she completed the practicum, Kelly was hired as a half-time teacher, half-time sub, at Tiger Elementary.

Esparanza

At the time the study was being conducted, Esparanza was completing her fourth year in the fourth grade. Education was very important for Esparanza’s family. Growing up, she did not have the internet at home and, therefore, she spent her time at the library as there was only one television in her home. Esparanza was a trustworthy teenager. Her parents knew they could count on her to be doing one of three things: studying, working, or being with her friends. Even today, Esparanza volunteers at her local library.

Esparanza has always loved school. Her fourth-grade teacher was her favorite elementary teacher of all time, as she incorporated hands-on activities in her teaching to keep the students engaged. Esparanza loved being in her class and she enjoyed the many fun projects that she completed. These projects included reciting the names of the presidents in ascending order in 30 seconds and the study of the human skeleton as well as that of rocks.

Even as a child, Esparanza knew that she wanted to be a teacher. Also, during her school days – since the second grade – she had kept a log of all her teachers. In it, Esparanza would collect and write down all of her favorite things that her teachers did. She would write these ideas down so that she could use them in her own classroom one day. Now, it is her fourth year of teaching fourth grade. One of Esparanza’s favorite memories is that of a student with impaired vision and helping her to find ways to access core subjects more efficiently. Esparanza was always trying to find ways to make tasks more accessible for this student.

Susan

At the time of this study, Susan was currently in her fourth year of teaching fifth grade. Susan grew up in a small town with a population of approximately 5,000. She lived there until the fourth grade. When she was in fourth grade, her parents divorced and she remained with her mother. When her mother married again and the family relocated, she was in sixth grade. Susan’s mother currently works for a government agency. Susan comes from a blended family. She has one brother who is five years younger, two stepsisters, and a half-brother, who was born when she was a freshman in high school. One stepsister was a senior when Susan was a freshman, and the other is three years younger. Her full brother is currently in college and studying to be a biology teacher.

In her early years, her character was influenced by her mother strongly believing in shouldering one’s responsibility, having good character, being a good person, and working to get what one wants. At an early age, Susan and her siblings began taking on responsibilities that most kids wouldn’t have at their age, such as purchasing clothes that her mother was unable to buy. If Susan thought she needed more than her mother was willing to give or pay for, then she took on the responsibility to earn what she needed. At 15, Susan began working at the local pool, and then at 16, she worked at their local grocery store. Susan continued to work at the grocery store throughout her college years. Today, Susan still continues to work at the pool in the summer. Susan appreciates her mother and believes that the foundation her mother laid for her has helped her get to where she is now.

As a teacher, Susan enjoys watching the children make progress throughout the year. However, over the past four years that Susan has taught, the behavior of her students throughout the year and particularly during the last four weeks of the school year has been the hardest to bear. Susan recalled that “the level of disrespect, specifically from the gentlemen in this group,” was hard to bear. Also, according to Susan, two years ago, erratic behavior and violence impacted the morale of the staff in the building. Over the last four years, Susan has worked with three different administrators. Susan stated that, this year, “the whole morale and care towards the students and staff appear to have improved.” Although student behavior has been a concern, watching students’ academic success is something Susan takes pleasure in. According to Susan, “Seeing the growth that kids make is such a highlight of what we do.”?

Anna

At the time of this study, Anna was completing her first year of education in the fifth grade. Early on, Anna loved school. When she was eight, her family moved to the state she where she is now a teacher. Her mother is an administrative assistant for a local agency and her father is a district sales manager for a local seed company. Cohesiveness was also important to Anna’s family. Anna mentioned her parents “worked family activities around friends and family” in such a way that Anna and her brother would not miss out on being with friends. However, Anna understood that family came first if she had to choose between her friends and family.

For Anna and her brother, academics came pretty easy. Being disciplined and respectful played an important role in Anna’s academic life. If Anna came home with a note from a teacher, her punishment was always worse at home than it was at school. Anna’s parents encouraged her to excel at school more than at anything else. If she was not doing well in school, she would not be allowed to participate in sports, which was extremely important to Anna and her brother. That positive experience of teachers’ concern for students has transferred over into Anna’s career.

Anna enjoys supporting her students. However, one of Anna’s most memorable experiences in high school was being the salutatorian for her senior class. Anna worked hard and earned good grades in high school because she decided to challenge herself. According to Anna, “Being a teacher is in itself a reward that one cannot even describe.” Anna knew she wanted to be a teacher since middle school. To Anna, the monetary aspect of teaching is not important. Instead, she finds that teaching involves building respect in a relationship that you form with a student.

According to Anna, building such a respectful relationship with a student is an experience one really can’t have in any other profession. Anna mentioned, “Having 26 ten-year-old students coming to you for advice, talking to you about their personal life, or that they are so excited that you are there today is, in itself, rewarding.” To some students, Anna might be the only form of stability in their life. Anna has witnessed the effects of an unstable home life that her students carry to school every day. Some of Anna’s students have been through troubling events she has never experienced herself. She feels fortunate that her students trust her and that they are willing to talk to her about their troubles. Self-rewarding can be a positive attribute in life, but it also can be disheartening.?

Carmen

At the time of this study, Carmen was completing her third year of teaching in the fourth grade. Carmen was born and raised in an urban city. As a young child growing up in an urban environment, she spent her free time with her cousins. Carmen’s parents always had very high expectations from their children, and they placed the highest importance on family. Carmen mentioned that they have “managed to stick together through a lot of adversity.” Schooling, education, and knowledge are second in priority. When time allowed, Carmen’s mother read to the children, helped them complete math scenarios, and instilled in them an affinity for science. Success and financial stability was also probably a matter of high priority. Her parents worked hard since they were young to ensure an economic cushion that would give Carmen and her siblings stability during their formative years. The expectation of mutual respect was also highly prioritized to assure stability. As a result, Carmen has always respected adults and those in charge.

“In school,” Carmen stated, “I had a multitude of teachers who motivated me to want to be a teacher.” Carmen recalled that she admired the teachers that allowed her to “dive into the passion of that content knowledge.” However, Carmen mentioned that she always had a natural and innate desire to teach. Even as a child and an adolescent, Carmen had always been guiding her siblings and teaching her cousins. Carmen remembers teaching her family how to swing, dress, socialize, and play. Carmen was inspired by her teachers. They were professionals who remained true to themselves while teaching and, in Carmen’s perspective, that made them inspiring in their own way. Carmen admired those who inspired the youth because they believed students deserved to be inspired.

Based on her experience teaching, Carmen mentioned that students “deserve fresh starts.” She further noted that students are capable of anything and everything and need to know that they are thus capable, “loved, can learn, be motivated, and disciplined.” Part of Carmen’s philosophy is that treating individuals as “humans” is the most important because they deserve the same level of respect as all individuals do. “Whether teaching socially, or academically, students simply need to be ‘taught’ how to manage in the environment around them.” Due to her background, Carmen explained that students need to know “how to take care of the fight inside!”

Nora

At the time of this study, Nora was completing her second year in the fifth grade. Nora’s background included growing up in a small family. Nora was born when her mother was just 17 and her father was 18. Nora’s father was a high school dropout and her mother went to William Penn, where she earned her associate degree in psychology. Having witnessed her parents verbally disagreeing often growing up, Nora does not have a relationship with her father’s side of the family. However, Nora is close to her mother’s siblings and their children and usually visits her grandmother and her mother’s side of the family. Nora had a troubled childhood. In her elementary years, Nora witnessed violence and abuse in her household. Her father went to rehab during her fifth grade and was arrested several times throughout her childhood.

Coming from a small community, Nora felt isolated. Nora mentioned that she felt the pressure to get good grades, and at the age of 16, she wished to get a job. Nora was expected to pay for all of her needs, but with her earnings, she also helped the family pay the mortgage and bills. Nora assisted her parents for a few years because her father did not have a stable or legal job since she was five. In first grade, Nora lagged in her studies. She did not know letter sounds or any sight words. A paraeducator worked with Nora to help her catch up with the class. With the paraeducators’ guidance, Nora went from being a struggler to being a high-rankers in her class in the following year.

Nora shared some of her memories of elementary and secondary school. In elementary, she shared that she learned and built confidence through project-based learning. Now, as a teacher, Nora implements projects in school because she knows that students remember what they learn when they enjoy learning by themselves more as compared to learning by filling out worksheets and watching videos. In secondary school, certain times were unmemorable for Nora. She felt unchallenged and did not try very hard. Nora recalled that when she graduated from high school, she did not have a foundation in math. She compensated for this lack by memorizing the steps and the formulas without understanding the foundation of math in high school. The time she spent in school was unproductive. However, she was interested in clubs and sports.

The struggles Nora faced in her childhood helped her to develop a strong work ethic. Nora explained that she prefers to be busy and involved in helping others, be it mentoring, coaching, or teaching, rather than being passive. Nora always wanted to be a teacher. She recalled spending her time in the study halls in high school working with students and tutoring. Nora explained, “I just love working with children and making a difference in their lives.” Her personal goal for that year was to make her class feel like a family and be able to work together.

Data Collection and Analysis

Data for this study was collected from current and former teachers who took part in district initiatives that involve inclusion programming. Three interviews of 60–90 minutes each was completed for each participant. The semi-structured interview approach was presented in a uniform set of open-ended questions that involved (a) demographic information on each participant, and (b) participants’ perceptions and experiences with implementing, collecting, analyzing, and using data for the purpose of teachers’ fidelity of inclusion programming (Merriam, 2002). In addition, observations in participants’ classrooms were conducted for each participant to observe teachers in the natural settings during instruction and classroom activities. Observations provided first-hand teacher practices that affected fidelity inclusion programming, which then assisted in triangulating the emerging findings. The narrative was used to record teacher-to-student and student-to-student interactions, comments to others, room and physical proximity, and the lack of physical space in the learning environment. Document analysis for this study included newspapers, official memos given to teachers, notices sent home to parents, official district policy statements, and current and archived school board meeting minutes.

Data collected from the three semi-structured interviews were then transcribed using simple descriptive codes, which were later develop into interpretative codes, to finally identify connections and reveal relationships between factors that affect teachers’ fidelity of inclusion. To avoid repetition and overlap, a code book was created to assist in identifying themes based on the conceptual framework and research questions to provide a detailed description of each case and the patterns, from which 12 primary themes emerged. These 12 themes are listed based on each of the four educational environments identified by Strange and Banning (2015). They were supported with exemplar quotes from the participants.

Data from the interviews with the teachers were used to triangulate and further substantiate their experiences with inclusion. Lincoln and Guba (1985) recommended triangulation of research study’s findings, member checks, rich thick description, and peer feedback to ensure credibility and trustworthiness in qualitative research. Member checks occurred when the researcher asked the participants to review both data collected by the researcher and the interpretation of the interview data. Participants were then given the opportunity to verify their statements and to fill in any missing information from earlier interviews (Creswell, 2013).

Findings

Physical Environment of the Classroom Lessens Opportunities to Participate Fully

Utilizing space according to students and the ways through which the students learned is a best practice. Participants in this study reported large class sizes as a major barrier in the implementation of inclusion programs in their schools. The combination of a large student population and furniture made it difficult for learners and the teacher to move freely in the classroom. Esparanza, Anna, Nora, and Susan discussed how class size has affected their instruction. Esparanza recalled how the classroom physical space affects instruction as follows:?

Well, this year I had 28 kids with 31 desks because my visual impaired student had taken up three of those desks. I don’t have a lot of space. I used to have a lot more room, where we would be like, “Okay, come to the carpet, and we’re gonna work these problems out.” You know, having them move from their desks to the ground, having them work so that they’re not distracted by their desks, they’re focused on whatever it is that I’m teaching. But with having all of these desks and then having that table in the back because, you know, I needed the table for, you know, small group, all types of things. It just was hard. I guess it’s difficult because they don’t have as much freedom of movement as I would like.

In addition, participants talked about classrooms that offer a variety of choices in adjusting the physical environment, which are desirable for all educational programs and can help students with disabilities become successful learners.

Furthermore, while some students who use wheelchairs are capable of getting around a classroom, large class size is a barrier to their ability to navigate the environment. Many students can move their wheelchairs most of the time but may need help in some situations. Susan recalled, “We actually have a student in a wheelchair, so, with that large class size, there were times that it was maybe a little bit more difficult for her to get to certain parts of the building.”

Different Seating Arrangements Supports Inclusion

The participants described areas where students can work independently or collaboratively with others as optimal for inclusion to be successful. For instance, Esparanza used traditional desks. Observations revealed that all the participants in her classroom, when possible, had maximized learning through flexible seating, tables, and desks. Additionally, participants incorporated station activities throughout the room versus fixed seatwork to assess learning outcomes. Kelly mentioned that she incorporates flexible seating in her classroom, “where students have their own choice of where they want to sit every school day.” As a result, she mentioned, “they attempt to sit next to other people who are going to help you work your best” and further to “motivate the kids to work hard due to being comfortable.”

Other participants also incorporated changing structures within their classroom. Nora mentioned the following:

I split up my week so it is part of the time whole group instruction and part of the time small group stations or group work. I use tables versus desks because we do a lot of pair sharing and group work. I assign students partners and groups for everything, which helps me push students as well as support students that need extra help.

In addition to tables, Carmen at Bluebird Elementary changes the structure of a classroom to increase student engagement. Carmen recalled using different types of seating, “My classroom has a couch, two rocking chairs, long connected tables in the back where students can work collaboratively, pillows for the students to sit on the floor and work, community resources and supplies that students share.”

Promoting a Sense of Belonging and Appropriate Atmosphere for Inclusion

The participants’ definition of inclusion helped to provide a foundation for understanding their approach to implementing inclusive practices. Participants who approached inclusion from a supportive and positive perspective were more successful with implementation. Both Kelly and Susan shared similar feelings about their definition of inclusion. Kelly shared, “Inclusion means representing all students. Giving them what they need to be successful in their environment and in the classrooms. I also think it has to do with students who need special education services.”

Promoting a sense of belonging also includes removal of barriers while providing accommodations in shared environments. In order for inclusion to work successfully, more than just a supportive and positive atmosphere created by the teacher is necessary. In all the participant locations, the classrooms had success quotes along with their district mission of student success hung up on their classroom walls. Strange and Banning (2015) mention that an organization also serves as a supportive aggregate for those students and encourages their involvement. However, certain situations in an inclusive environment may not be conducive to all students. In a follow-up question inquiring whether students with a disability should be in the general education classroom, Carmen and Nora shared a similar perspective but a different viewpoints toward special education. Carmen explained, “Inclusion means including every student. Each student is a general education student first. They should be treated as such, meaning that what they NEED should be a PART of our classroom.” On the other hand, Nora described inclusion as follows:

Inclusion means that all students should get Tier 1 support and the core grade level education. No students should be pulled during their core instruction times and they should all get the same amount of time. Some students need Tier 2 supports throughout the year on certain standards and skills; they should get more time and focus on those skills in order to close the gaps.

They both agreed that including collaboration is essential for teachers to educate all students effectively in the classroom. Carmen echoed how collaboration encouraged organizational commitment and shared accountability:

Working with the IEP, BIP, or other interventions for a student, along with the student’s teachers, working together as a team to best provide for the student’s needs. Adaptations to work expectations will vary based on student needs for ALL students. Not just those that have interventions and plans already put into place.

In past literature, Collaboration has been found to be a beneficial tool for helping teachers serve students with disabilities (Brownell et al., 2006). Collaboration also provides support to teachers when working with non-disabled and disabled students. All the participants mentioned that the level of support that teachers receive also influences their attitudes toward inclusion.

Successful Inclusion Begins with the Teacher in General Education First

Strange and Banning (2015) state that relationships could promote or suppress students’ motivation to learn. Further, general educators plan and implement the curriculum to support students with and without disabilities who need assistance. With the implementation of inclusion in schools, staff redefine their roles. All six participants shared that the intent of faculty and staff was to work together to further motivate students to learn. Since Kelly is in her first year of teaching, she mentioned that “the Special Ed Department would be the primary people that kind of determine when kids get pulled out and when they go back to class.”

A primary source of support for the implementation of effective inclusion is the positive attitude of all involved, as the development of an appropriate belief system is considered necessary to inclusive education. Strange and Banning (2015) noted that, “commonly shared interests are also important features of most communities” (p. 220). An observation Kelly shared was that flexibility is crucial to inclusion programming, especially when interactions take place within each batch during small group activities:

I think the teacher needs to be flexible for one thing. Just recognizing that you have students all completely different from each other, plus the abilities and personalities and culture background and stuff. I think incorporating all of that into your classroom and into your instruction all together helps the teacher to be successful in building relationships. I think building relationships is the important part about teaching. If you don’t have that relationship with students, I don’t think that students are going be motivated to want to learn from you or learn in the classroom.

Thus, flexibility is critical, especially during instruction. Esparanza mentioned, “Definitely having an open mind along with being creative on figuring out how the tasks can be accommodated for a student’s needs.” Susan also added,

Flexibility is huge. Let’s say a task in main idea and key details, and the student just had to be able to select through some of the information and those kids might not be able to access it like everybody else. Just saying to yourself, how can you be flexible with what you originally had planned to lead these students with it?

Anna also shared that “teachers who are not flexible and who don’t have a positive attitude will keep them [students] from being successful.” As such, creating a classroom community tends to result in positive relationships between the teacher and students and among the students themselves.

Inconsistent Support Leads to Various Inclusion Implementation by Staff

All of the participants identified having full control in decision-making concerning inclusion programming. General education teachers bring their skills, trainings, and perspectives to strengthen teaching and learning opportunities, methods, and effectiveness for all students. Strange and Banning (2015) noted that “concerns about decision-making environments also lead to various design options” (p. 89). In order to successfully implement inclusion by herself, Nora does her best in accommodating and modifying. However, she felt she had inadequate training to meet the needs of students with disabilities and stated, “I have full control over how I implement inclusion. I focus on this every day, but I have seen multiple other teachers take this control and just ignore working with these students.” Participants in their fourth and fifth year were noticeably implementing modifications and accommodations with little to no support from special education teachers or instructional coaches.

Paraprofessionals are also important for successful inclusive practices, but training and policies are inconsistent.However, Anna mentioned frustrations with paraeducators. One para assisted her student when needed whereas another para worked with her student and other general education students nearby. Anna referenced the impact of respect between a para and student while in the classroom, as she stated,

I see both positive and negative interactions. It is all dependent on how the student treats the para and how the para treats the student. Mutual respect is a huge factor when working in a classroom. I see my paras getting frustrated with some students they work with often because of lack of effort or attitude.

Susan, a fourth-year teacher, provided insights into the relationship among paras and students in addition to escalating student behavior:

It also depends. I just feel like within a system, we have done a disservice. Just their ability to sincerely work with the students. But in those times of escalation, are we escalating or are we de-escalating and poking the bear? I would say that we have some associates within our building who may more than help the situation. I think part of that is just due to lack of training.

Establishing a Positive Classroom Culture Supports and Meets Students’ Needs

The characteristics of a school affect student behavior and academic achievement (Kallestad, 2010). A supportive culture was evident in all the locations through displays of classroom expectations or rules on the walls and at entrances of the classroom. One noticeable gesture that was different from all the locations was the word “believe” written above the classroom door in small-sized font along with the school pledge. Strange and Banning (2015) stress the importance of the subjective views and experiences of individuals within the socially constructed environment. Training and implementation on how to support students’ needs in social emotional and behavioral supports was noted from the participants. Kelly expressed the implementation of Positive Behavior Intervention of Supports (PBIS) as a system that helps their school culture and climate:

I think PBIS systems help with that as well. Like kids who have positive behavior get rewarded. So, the idea is that kids can see how easy positive behavior can be rewarded. They can see the other kids get rewarded; this actually impacts [their] behavior.

Susan also stated the following:?

We really pride ourselves for having a very inclusive group of students. So, we really, in terms of like culture, our kids are very open to any student. This past year, we had – I mean – we have a very diverse group of different needs, whether it was someone in a wheelchair or someone who just began to speak when they were in third grade. Our kids are very welcoming to any of those students.

Esparanza, a teacher in her fourth year, expressed how her school culture is affected by not being provided with skills addressing a student’s emotional health. She further explained that school culture is affected when students are not educated in an inclusive setting. She noted their discipline referrals increase while their social and emotional growth and development skills decrease:

Our social-emotional like skills that our students have and lack are incredible. And you know, you try to do as much as you can with your classroom, like, “This is why we don’t do this, this is how it–” You know, like you try to logically explain it but some kids, that doesn’t – that’s not how they work. That’s not how they’re emotionally set up. I think that’s one of the biggest things is that I don’t know how necessarily or I don’t have time to teach all of the–those skills that they need, on top of everything else that I need them to get done, because that’s the social-emotional skill, you know, [that] sets the tone for a lot of things.

Carmen also echoed concerns about social-emotional health and the lack of stable environments when students are not at school:

I believe that the adults affect the challenges in our school, as well as home influences. For students with disabilities, it is most difficult if home environment is not stable or parents/guardians are not on the same page with the team creating and implementing the plan. Students without disabilities do not struggle as much, as long as they have a positive influence in their life.

All the participants agreed that professional development emphasizing inclusion would be beneficial. Strange and Banning (2015) noted that interventions play an important role in encouraging individuals to become involved. However, the participants shared different interpretations of how training looks in inclusion efforts. Professional development at Susan’s school emphasizes curriculum as a way to educate and support inclusion in the classroom. She stated, “The more comfortable we get with that, the more we’re going to be able to help all students. So, I think the more professional development we have with that, I think that’ll help with everything.” Some of the other participants have not been privileged to inclusion training while employed. In essence, successful professional development regarding inclusion provides teachers with the opportunity of observing, offering, and receiving feedback and analyzing student data. Nonetheless, the change of rules concerning least restrictive environment does affect school culture.

Discussion and Implications for Successful Inclusion in the Schools

Teachers play a significant role in inclusion. The successful inclusion of all students may, however, only be possible within school settings that provide the necessary support and resources (Borg et al., 2011). This environment is further impacted by the fact that organizations communicate nonverbal communication through human or social aspects of the settings and the physical aspects of the place (Strange & Banning, 2015). In this study, each participant reported large class sizes as a barrier to implementing inclusion programs in their schools. Large classes allowed students to be more disruptive, aiding participation avoidance and hampering student?faculty classroom interaction. One implication of this research proposes that smaller classes are encouraged and, on some level, pressured students to participate in learning activities. Keeping students engaged during the independent time was another concern for the participants. Improving accessibility in the learning environment for students with disabilities will allow participation in the same activities in a similar manner as students without disabilities.

Strange and Banning (2015) described the aggregate environment as communities being partly distinguished by the characteristics of the constituent individuals. In this research, students feeling welcomed by their school was the most preferred theme among participants. The participants noted that inclusive programs can meet the needs of students by ensuring that these students make sufficient academic progress to narrow the achievement gap with their peers and make progress toward meeting core expectations. They also shared that recognizing all the students’ uniqueness, personalities, and abilities and being flexible in incorporating all of this into the classroom helps a teacher successfully build relationships with students, so that students can learn and be successful in school and life. By learning new inclusive methods to support all learners, teachers can help create a climate that is responsive to addressing all students’ individual needs.

Collaboration also involves training together to support inclusion. The participants noted the need for professional development, acquisition, and continuance of skills as well as training from coaches. Prior research by Heibert (1999) mentioned that collaboration among teachers is important when implementing strategies resulting from professional development. So, students benefit from successful planning and implementation; however, both general and special education teachers will have a more rewarding school year if they share ideas and plan together (Mejia, 2015). Findings of this study suggest that inclusive classrooms cannot be handled in the same way as a regular classroom. The importance of planning high-quality instruction in providing for academic success and quality instruction was observed in each teacher’s classroom. Evidence of high-quality instruction was observed during small group activities. As Strange and Banning (2015) described the organizational environment as constructed and reconstructed to achieve specific organizational goals, implementing effective inclusion depends on the positive attitude of all involved. Thus, schools should consider a common matrix for the implementation of inclusion programming in general education classrooms.

The participants noted being sole decision makers in implementing inclusion and also being unprepared when educating students with a disability. Thus, schools should consider removing barriers around inclusion and focus on identifying a common matrix based on students’ needs. Removing barriers to inclusion will make every program, policy, and practice available to all staff, through a clear and common vision that puts students first. Prior research by Leithwood et al. (1999) noted that teachers, acting as leaders, had greater commitment to change. This commitment in decision making also consists of guidance to increase student achievement, with the help of an instructional coach.

Strange and Banning (2015) described the construct environment as understanding the educational setting through the perceptions of users. The socially constructed environment recognizes the role of teachers in shaping their experience and the experience of others. Students with disabilities have a difficult time with social skills concepts and need instruction to help them understand how to appropriately implement what is expected (Battista, 1999). Participants in this study made conscious efforts to communicate the need for resources or curriculum to develop social-emotional skill for all students, which is crucial to ensuring inclusion.

Another implication of this research suggests providing specific professional development for both general and special education teachers. All study participants recognized and understood the need for additional professional development for inclusive teaching, which addresses instruction as well as training regarding understanding and implementing inclusion in the general education environment. In fact, each participant had a different interpretation of professional development and training in inclusion.

Limitations

Although this study captured an insight of fidelity of inclusion in classrooms of teachers with varying experience, participants with less than five years in the classroom may be relying on training initiatives carried out pre-service as well as current district expectations in implementing inclusion programming. Furthermore, this researched to this time frame was important to frame the scope of the study, but may not provide a comprehensive picture on the fidelity of inclusion. As a result, this study included six participants with 0–5 years of experience who are teaching in either the fourth or fifth grade. Interviews with participants revealed insights into the challenges of implementing effective inclusion practices within an inclusive classroom.

Next, findings of this study may face some limitations with respect to its sampling method, as according to Merriam and Tisdell (2015), purposeful sampling is “based on the assumption that the researcher wants to discover, understand, gain insight, therefore, must select a sample from which most can be learned” (p. 9). In this study, the selection of participants provided the most information as they were currently teaching in fourth and fifth grades of general education and started their teaching career in the general education classroom no earlier than the 2013-2014 school year.

Finally, Creswell (1998) and Groenewald (2004) considered interviews with 6–10 participants as sufficient to reach saturation. Simply put, qualitative researchers continue to collect data until they no longer hear or see new information; therefore, as six individuals participated in this study, interviews were conducted until data saturation was reached.

Future Research

Titone (2005) stated that a major obstacle to successful inclusion has been the lack of effective preparation for teachers. Additionally, few studies address the need for reorganization of the teaching and learning process as well as redefining of roles and relationships between all the individuals involved in providing effective inclusion in the general education environment. Future research can add to the available literature by replicating this current study with a larger sample size, looking specifically at teachers who have taught for 5?10 service years. Data from this study suggests that teachers with more years of service were able to understand the teaching strategies imperative for a successful inclusion classroom. Furthermore, the study also revealed that the more experience teachers have better insights on the benefits and challenges of implementing inclusion practices.

The findings also suggest replicating this study with charter schools, parochial and private institutions, and high schools. The exploration of all of these schools through the lens of Strange and Banning’s (2015) environmental model could potentially provide further insights into attitudes towards inclusion in private schools and secondary education.

Finally, this study should be replicated with a focus on the perceptions of students and parents with disabilities, while using the Strange and Banning’s (2015) environmental model. Research from this current study suggests the findings of such future research could provide information on parent and student perceptions of the impact of inclusion and academic success. Such useful information may be gathered to further develop best practices and strengthen school and parent partnerships in developing effective and strategic communication.

Institutional Review Board

The inclusion of human participants in research requires approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at Drake University. The IRB also helps to protect the institution and the researchers against potential legal implications that can be considered unethical. This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at Drake University. Training was provided by the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative, Social and Behavioral Research. Furthermore, all recommendations by the IRB were implemented throughout the entire study with the highest integrity, and no data were collected until IRB approval was obtained.

Inclusion Matrix Example

		K	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12
Levels	K–12 Inclusion Matrix
		Level of support based on needs in the  general education environment
1	These students function successfully in the general education classroom with minimal support as long as the general education teacher uses differentiated instructional strategies.	Support to Independence
2	These students may need to be accommodated in specific subjects; however, collaboration on accommodations needs to occur between the general education teacher and a solutions team.	Model and Support					Support and Student Application				Student Application to Independence
3	The general education teacher may need to consult with instructional coaches, a solutions team, and the special education teacher regarding accommodations for specific lessons/skills.	Model and Support					Support and Student Application				Student Application to Independence
4	These students should be able to be successful in general education settings with the benefit of a co-teacher or paraeducator as long as the general education teacher collaborates on accommodations, modifications, and instructional strategies based on students’ strengths.	Model and Support					Support and Student Application to Independence
5	These students identified with a plan will need support from a paraeducator or possibly direct assistance from a special education teacher on specific subjects while in the general education classroom. When a special education teacher is not in the classroom, the general education teacher will need to consult with the special education teacher on a regular basis to assist in designing accommodations.	Model and Support							Support and Student Application to Independence
6	These students may benefit from specialized instruction delivered by a special education teacher while in the general education environment. Classroom schedules may need to be altered, and any removal for specialized instruction must be done on a very limited basis.	Model, Support, and Student Application
7	These students need significant accommodations (and possibly modifications) in general education classes for the majority of subjects, if not all.	Model, Support, and Student Application
8	These students need maximum accommodations, modifications, and support while in general education classes. A special education teacher needs to be assigned to help support students’ needs and teacher’s instructional delivery.	Model, Support, and Student Application

Model and Support: Direct modeling and support of new skills acquired as well as retention of previous skills learned

Student Application: New skills acquired and retention of previous skills learned, which are then applied by students with support

Support and Student Application to Independence: Support of new skills acquired and retention of previous skills, which are then applied by students independently

References

Agbenyega, J., & Deku, P. (2011). Building new identities in teacher preparation for inclusive education in Ghana. Current Issues in Education, 14(1). Retrieved from cie.asu.edu

Ainscow, M. (2013). Making sense of inclusive education. Trinity Education Papers: Examining Theory and Practice In Inclusive Education, 2(2), 2–11.

Alexander, K., & Alexander, M. D. (2012). American public-school law (8th ed.).Wadsworth.

Alhassan, A. M. (2014). Implementation of inclusive education in Ghanaian primary schools: A look at teachers’ attitudes. American Journal of Educational Research, 2(3), 142–148. http://pubs.sciepub.com/education/2/3/5/index.html#

Allday, R. A., Neilsen-Gatti, S., & Hudson, T. M. (2013). Preparation for inclusion in teacher education pre-service curricula. Teacher Education and Special Education, 36(4), 298–311.

Allison, K. R., Philipneri, A. N., Vu-Nguyen, K., Manson, H. E., Dwyer, J. M., Hobin, E., & Li, Y. (2018). School and classroom effects on Daily Physical Activity (DPA) policy implementation fidelity in Ontario classrooms: a multi-level analysis. BMC Public Health, 18(1), N.PAG. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5720-2

Anderson, L. W., & Anderson, J. C. (1982). Affective assessment is necessary and possible. Educational Leadership, 39(7), 524–525.

Aristotle. (1976). The ethics of Aristotle: The Nicomachean ethics (J. A. K. Thomson, Trans.). Penguin.

Avramidis, E., Bayliss, P., & Burden R. (2002). A survey into mainstream teachers’ attitudes towards the inclusion of children with special education needs in the ordinary school in one local education authority. Education Psychology, 20(2). 191–211. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410050027973

Avramidis, E., & Norwich, B. (2002). Teachers’ attitudes towards integration/inclusion: A review of the literature. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 17(2), 129–147.

Bailey, J. (1998). Australia: Inclusion through categorization? In T. Booth & M. Ainscow (Eds.), From them to us: An international study of inclusion in education (pp. 171-185). Routledge.

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice- Hall, Inc.

Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28(2), 117.

Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (vol. 4, pp. 71-81). Academic Press.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman and Company.

Banks, J., McCoy, S., & Shevlin, M. (2013). Inclusive education research: Evidence from Growing Up in Ireland. Trinity Education Papers: Examining Theory and Practice in Inclusive Education, 2(2), 24–35.

Banning, C. S., & Banning, J. H. (1986). Student-institution fit: Linking campus ecology to enrollment management. Campus Ecology, 4(4), 1–8.

Barned, N. E., Knapp, N. K., & Neuharth-Pritchett, S. (2011). Knowledge and attitudes of early childhood preservice teachers regarding the inclusion of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 32(4), 302–321. https://doi.org/10.1080/10901027.2011.622235

Barth, R. (2006). Improving relationships within the schoolhouse. Educational Leadership, 63(6), 8–13.

Barton, L. (1997). Inclusive education: Romantic, subversive or realistic? International Journal of Inclusive Education , 1(3).

Batsche, G., Elliott, J., Graden, J. L., Grimes, J., Kovaleski, J. F., Prasse, D., & Tilly, W. D. III. (2005). Response to intervention: Policy considerations and implementation. National Association of State Directors of Special Education.

Battista, M. (1999). The mathematical miseducation of America’s youth: Ignoring research and scientific study in education. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(6), 424–433.

Baxter, J., & Eyles, J. (1997). Evaluating qualitative research in social geography: Establishing ‘rigour’ in interview analysis. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 22(4), 505–525. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0020-2754.1997. 00505.x

Berry, R. A. W. (2011). Voices of experience: General education teachers on teaching students with disabilities. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 15(6), 627–648.

Bennett, S. (2009). What works? Research into Practice. Exceptionality, 10(12), 18–22.

Bennett, S., & Gallagher, T. (2015). Elementary and secondary teachers’ views on inclusive practice: A school board in transition [Conference presentation]. 49th Conference for Exceptional Children, Toronto, ON, United States.

Blakely, C. H., Mayer, J. P., Gottschalk, R. G., et al. (1987). The fidelity-adaptation debate: Implications for the implementation of public sector social programs. American Journal of Community Psychology, 15, 253–268.

Blomberg, N. (2004). Effective discipline for misbehavior: In-school vs. out-of-school suspension. www.publications.villanova.edu/Concept/2004/Effective_Discipline.pdf

Bogdan, R., & Biklen, S. K. (2003). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and method. Allyn & Bacon.

Bond, G. R., Becker, D. R., Drake, R. E., Rapp, C. A., Meisler, N., Lehman, A. F., & Blyler, C. R. (2001). Implementing supported employment as an evidence-based practice. Psychiatric Services, 52(3), 313–322.

Bowers, H. J., & Burkett, C. W. (1987). Relationship of student achievement characteristics in two selected school facility environmental settings. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 286 278).

Brantlinger, E. (1997). Using ideology: Cases of non-recognition of the politics of research and practice in special education. Review of Educational Research, 67(4), 425–459.

Brownell, M. T., Adams, A., Sindelar, P., Waldron, N., & Van Hover, S. (2006). Learning from collaboration: The role of teacher qualities. Exceptional Children, 72(2), 169–185. http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=31&sid=e6ee268d-ae82-4f49-a2e1-0243df9a09d6%40sessionmgr120&hid=106

Brownell, M. T., & Pajares, F. (1999). Teacher efficacy and perceived success in mainstreaming students with learning and behavior problems. Teacher Education and Special Education, 22(3), 154–164.

Brownell, M. T., Ross, D. D., Colón, E. P., & McCallum, C. L. (2005). Critical features of special education teacher preparation: A comparison with general teacher education. Journal of Special Education, 38(4), 242–252.

Buman, N. T., Cakar, E., & Yildiz, D. G. (2014). Curriculum fidelity and factors affecting fidelity in the Turkish context. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 14(1), 219–228. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2014.1.2020

Burstein, N., Sears, S., Wilcoxen, A., Cabello, B., & Spagna, M. (2004). Moving toward inclusive practices. Remedial and Special Education, 25(2), 104–116.

(2009). By reason thereof: Causation and eligibility under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2009. Brigham Young University Education & Law Journal, 2009(1), 173–195.

Cannella, G. S. (1997). Deconstructing early childhood education: Social justice and revolution. Peter Lang.

Capin, P., Walker, M. A., Vaughn, S., & Wanzek, J. (2018). Examining how treatment fidelity is supported, measured, and reported in K-3 reading intervention research. Educational Psychology Review, 30(3), 885–919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-017-9429-z

Carroll, C., Patterson, M., Wood, S., Booth, A., Rick, J., & Balain, S. (2007). A conceptual framework for implementation fidelity. Implementation Science, 2, 40–48. https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-2-40

Causton-Thoeharis, J. (2009). The golden rule of providing support in inclusive classrooms: Support others as you wish to be supported. Teaching Exceptional Children, 42(2), 36–43.

Cazden, C.B. (2001). Classroom discourse: The language of teaching and learning. Heinemann.

Center, D. B., & Steventon, C. (2001). The EBD teacher stressors questionnaire. Education and Treatment of Children, 24(3), 323–335.

Chhabra, S., Srivastava, R., & Srivastava, I. (2010). Inclusive education in Botswana: The perceptions of school teachers. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 20(4), 219–228. https://doi.org/10.1177/1044207309344690

Chen, H. (1990). Theory-driven evaluations. Sage Publications.?

Chow, J. T., Hui, C. M., & Lau, S. (2015). A depleted mind feels inefficacious: Ego-depletion reduces self-efficacy to exert further self-control. European Journal of Social Psychology, 45(6), 754–768. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2120

Clark, C., Dyson A., & Millward, A. (1995). Towards inclusive schools? David Fulton Publishers Ltd.

Cochran-Smith, M. (2005). The new teacher education: For better or for worse? Educational Researcher, 34(7), 3–17. Wilson Web.

Coles, B. (2009). Top challenges teachers face in special needs inclusive classrooms. Helium. www.helium.com/items/1616836-what-are-the-teachers-biggest-challenges-with-a-special-needs-inclusive-classroom

Collins, J. L., Lee, J., Fox, J. D., & Madigan, T. P. (2017). Bringing together reading and writing: An experimental study of writing intensive reading comprehension in low-performing urban elementary schools. Reading Research Quarterly, 52(3), 311–332. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.175

Conderman, G. J., & Katsiyannis, A. (2002). Instructional issues and practices in secondary special education. Remedial and Special Education, 23(3), 169–179.

Cook, B. (2002). Inclusive attitudes, strengths, and weaknesses of pre-service general educators enrolled in a curriculum infusion teacher preparation program. Teacher Education and Special Education, 25(3), 262–277.

Council for Exceptional Children. (2004). The New IDEA: CEC’S summary of significant issues. www.cec.sped.org

Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Sage Publications.

Creswell, W. J. (2007). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). Pearson, Merrill Prentice Hall.

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.

Crotty, M. (1998). The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research process. Sage Publications.

Cumming, T., & Wong, S. (2010). Family day care is for normal kids: Facilitators and barriers to the inclusion of children with disabilities in family day care. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 35(3), 4–12.

Dane, A. V., & Schneider, B. H. (1998). Program integrity in primary and early secondary prevention: Are implementation effects out of control? Clinical Psychology Review, 18(1), 23–45.

Daniels, H. (2001). Vygotsky and Pedagogy. Routledge.

Day, C. (2012). New lives of teachers. Teacher Education Quarterly, 39(1), 7–26.

De Boer, A., Pijl, S. J., & Minnaert, A. (2011). Regular primary schoolteachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education: A review of the literature. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 15(3), 331–353. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603110903030089

Denzin, N. K. (1989). Interpretive interactionism. Sage Publications.

Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (2011). The Sage handbook of qualitative research. Sage Publications.

Denzin, N. K. (2009). The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological methods. Aldine Transaction.

Desimone, J., & Parmar, R. (2006). Issues and challenges for middle school mathematics teachers in inclusion classrooms. School Science and Mathematics, 106(8), 338–348.

Dieker, L. A., & Barnett, C. A. (1996). Effective co-teaching. Teaching Exceptional Children, 29, 5–7.

Di Gennaro, D., Pace, E., Zollo, I., & Aiello, P. (2014). Teacher capacity building through critical reflective practice for the promotion of inclusive education. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 60, 54–66. web.b.ebscohost.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer

Dixon, F. A., Yssel, N., McConnell, J. M., & Hardin, T. (2014). Differentiated instruction, professional development, and teacher efficacy. Journal for the Education of the Gifted. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162353214529042

Drago-Severson, E., & Pinto, K. (2006). School leadership for reducing teacher isolation: Drawing from the well of human resources. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 9(2), 129–55.

DuFour, R., Eaker, R., & DuFour, R. (2006). Learning by doing: A handbook for professional learning communities at work. Solution Tree.

Dunn, L. M. (1968). Special education for the mildly retarded – Is much of it justifiable? Exceptional Children, 34, 5–22.

Durlak, J. A., & DuPre, E. P. (2008). Implementation matters: A review of research on the influence of implementation on program outcomes and the factors affecting implementation. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41, 327–350.

Dweck, C. (1975). The role of expectations and attributions in the alleviation of learned helplessness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31(4), 674–685.

Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House.

Dweck, C. S. (2007). Boosting achievement with messages that motivate. Education Canada, 47(2).

Dweck, C. S. (2016). Mindset: The new psychology of success.

Dwyer, S. C., & Buckle, J. L. (2009). The space between: On being an insider-outsider in qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 8, 54–63.

Elias, M. J., Zins, J. E., Graczyk, P. A., & Weissberg, R. P. (2003). Implementation, sustainability, and scaling up of social-emotional and academic innovations in public schools. School Psychology Review, 32, 303–319.

Englander, M. (2012). The interview: Data collection in descriptive phenomenological human scientific research. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 43(1), 13–35. https://doi.org/10.1163/156916212X632943

Eriks-Brophy, A., & Whittingham, J. (2013). Teachers’ perceptions of the inclusion of children with hearing loss in general education settings. American Annals of the Deaf, 158(1), 63–97.

Ergün, E., & Avc?, Ü. (2018). Knowledge sharing self-efficacy, motivation and sense of community as predictors of knowledge receiving and giving behaviors. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 21(3), 60–73.

Florian, L. (1998). An examination of practical problems associated with the implementation of policies. Support for Learning, 13(3), 105–108.

Florian, L., Young, K., & Rouse, M. (2010). Preparing teachers for inclusive and diverse educational environments: Studying curricular reform in initial teacher education course. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 14(7), 709–722.

Forlin, C. (2001). Inclusion: Identifying potential stressors for regular class teachers. Educational Research, 43(3), 235–245.

Frank, K. A., Zhao, Y., & Borman, K. (2003). Social capital and the implementation of innovations in schools. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29, 877–904.

Frattura, E., & Capper, C. (2006). Segregated programs versus integrated comprehensive service delivery. Remedial and Special Education, 27(6), 355–64.

Friend, M., & Bursuck, W. (2009). Including students with special needs: A practical guide for classroom teachers (5th ed.). Pearson.

Friend, M., Cook, L., Hurley-Chamberlain, D., & Shamberger, C. (2010). Co-teaching: An illustration of the complexity of collaboration in special education. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, (20), 9–27.?

Fusch, P. I., & Ness, L. R. (2015). Are we there yet? Data saturation in qualitative research. Qualitative Report, 20(9), 1408–1416.

Gartner, A., & Lipsky, D. K. (1987). Beyond special education: Toward a quality system for all students. Harvard Educational Review, 57(4), 367–395.

Gavin, C. (2016). A phenomenological analysis of advanced placement experiences of American Indian/Alaskan Native students (Publication No. 100776341) [Doctoral dissertation]. ProQuest Information and Learning.

Gehrke, R. S., & Murri, N. (2006). Beginning special educator’s intent to stay in special education: Why they like it here. Teacher Education and Special Education, 29(3), 179–190.

Gerber, M. M.(2005). Teachers are still the test: Limitations of response to instruction strategies for identifying children with LO. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38,516–524.

Ghere, G., & York-Barr, J. (2007). Paraprofessional turnover and retention in inclusive programs. Remedial and Special Education, 28(1), 21–32.

Gillham, B. (2005). Research interviewing: The range of techniques. McGraw-Hill Education.

Giorgi, A. (2012). The descriptive phenomenological psychological method. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 43(1), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1163/156916212X632934

Glazzard, J. (2011). Perceptions of the barriers to effective inclusion in one primary school: Voices of teachers and teaching assistants. Support for Learning, 26(2), 56–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9604.2011.01478.x

Graham, L., Wright, J., Walwyn, R., Russell, A. M., Bryant, L., Farrin, A., & House, A. (2016). Measurement of adherence in a randomized controlled trial of a complex intervention: supported self-management for adults with learning disability and type 2 diabetes. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 16, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-016-0236-x

Griffin, S., & Shelvin, M. (2011). Responding to special educational needs: An Irish Perspective. Gill and MacMillan.

Griffith, J. C. (1994). Open space preservation: An imperative for quality campus environments. Journal of Higher Education, 65(6), 645–669.

Groenewald, T. (2004). A phenomenological research design illustrated. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 3(1), 42–55.

Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1981). Effective evaluation: Improving the usefulness of evaluation results through responsiveness and naturalistic approaches. Josey-Bass.

Guo, Y., Dynia, J. M., Logan, J. A. R., Justice, L. M., Breit-Smith, A., & Kaderavek, J. N. (2016). Fidelity of implementation for an early-literacy intervention: Dimensionality and contribution to children’s intervention outcomes. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 37, 165–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2016.06.001

Guskey, T. (2002). Professional development and teacher change. Teachers and Teaching, 8(3/4), 381–391. https://doi.org/10.1080/135406002100000512

Gutkin, T. B., & Curtis, M. J. (2009). School-based consultation: The science and practice of indirect service delivery. In T. B. Gutkin & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.), The handbook of school psychology (4th ed., pp. 591–635). Wiley.

Hamre, B. K., Justice, L. M., Pianta, R. C., Kilday, C., Sweeny, B., Downer, J. T., & Leach, A. (2010). Implementation fidelity of my teaching partner literacy and language activities: Association with preschoolers’ language and literacy growth. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25, 329–347.

Harn, B., Parisi, D., & Stoolmiller, M. (2013). Balancing fidelity with flexibility and fit: What do we really know about fidelity of implementation in schools. Exceptional Children, 79(2), 181–193.?

Harpur, P. (2012). Embracing the new disability rights paradigm: The importance of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Disability & Society, 27(1), 1–14.

Harrison, C., & Killion, J. (2007). Ten roles for teacher leaders. Educational Leadership, 65(1), 74–77.

Hatch, T. (2000). What does it mean to break the mold? Rhetoric and reality in new American schools. Teachers College Record, 102, 561–589.

Henry, K. L., & Huizinga, D. H. (2007). School-related risk and protective factors associated with truancy among urban youth placed at risk. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 28(6), 505–519. https:///doi.org/10.1007/s10935-007-0115-7

Henson, R. (2001). Teacher self-efficacy: Substantive implications and measurement dilemmas [Conference presentation]. Annual Meeting of the Educational Research Exchange,College Station, TX, USA.

Hernandez, M., Gomez, A., Lipien, L., & Greenbaum, P. E. (2001). Use of the system-of-care practice review in the national evaluation: Evaluating the fidelity of practice to system-of-care principles. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 9, 43–52.

Hiebert, J. (1999). Relationships between research and the NCTM standards. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 30(1), 3–19.?

Hodkinson, A. (2010). Inclusive and special education in the English educational system: Historical perspectives, recent developments, and future challenges. British Journal of Special Education, 37(2), 61–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8578.2010.00462.x

Hong, B. S. S. (2015). Qualitative analysis of the barriers college students with disabilities experience in higher education. Journal of College Student Development, 56(3), 209–226.

Huberman, A. M., & Miles, M. B. (1994). Data management and analysis methods. In N. K. Huberman, M., Navo, M., & Parrish, T. (2012). Effective practices in high performing districts serving students in special education. Journal of Special Education Leadership, 25(2), 59–71.

Hauerwas, L. B., Brown, R., & Scott, A. N. (2013). Specific learning disability and response to intervention: State-level guidance. Exceptional Children, 80(1), 101–120.

Huang, H., & Diamond, K. E. (2009). Early childhood teachers’ ideas about including children with disabilities in programs designed for typically developing children. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 56(2), 169–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/10349120902868632

Husserl, E. (1931). Ideas: General introduction to pure phenomenology. (D. Carr, Trans.). Northwestern University Press.

Husserl, E. (1962). Ideas: General introduction to phenomenology. Colliers.

Hyunjeong, J., Tyler-Wood, L., Kinnison, L., & Morrison, G. (2014). The US and South Korean pre-k through 6 teachers’ beliefs about inclusion practices in their countries: Cross cultural perspectives. The Journal of the International Association of Special Education, 15(2), 11–23.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA), Pub. L. No. 108-446 (2004).

James Bell Associates. (2009). Evaluation brief: Measuring implementation fidelity. www.jbassoc.com/ReportsPublications/EvaluationBrief-MeasuringImplementationFidelity_Octob.pdf

Jencks, C. (1998). Whom must we treat equally for educational opportunity to be equal? Ethics, 98(3), 518–533.?

Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg M. T. (2009). The prosocial classroom: Teacher social and emotional competence in relation to student and classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 491–525.

Jobe, D., Rust, J., & Brissie, J. (1996). Teacher attitudes toward inclusion of students with disabilities into regular classrooms. Education, 117(1), 148–153.

Jones, B. A. (2012). Fostering collaboration in inclusive settings: The special education students at a glance approach. Intervention in School & Clinic, 47(5), 297–306. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451211430113

Johnson, E. S. (2015). Increasing rural special education teacher candidates’ ability to implement evidence-based practices: A program description of the Boise State University TATERS program. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 34(1), 5–9.

Jordan, A., Schwartz, E., & McGhie-Richmond, D. (2009). Preparing teachers for inclusive classrooms. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25, 535–542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2009.02.010

Kane, J. (2009). The college experience for students with physical disabilities. ProQuest LLC.

Katz, L. (1987). The experience of personal change (Publication No. 04B, AG8128) [Doctoral dissertation, The Union Institute]. Dissertation Abstracts International.

Katzman, L. (2007). High-stakes testing. In A. Bursztyn (Ed.), The Praeger handbook of special education (pp. 127-129). Praeger.

Kavale, K. A., Spaulding, L. S., & Beam, A. P. (2009). A time to define: Making the specific learning disability definition prescribe specific learning disability. Learning Disability Quarterly, 32(1), 39–48.

Kelly, J. A., Heckman, T. G., Stevenson, L. Y., & Williams, P. N. (2000). Transfer of research-based HIV prevention interventions to community service providers: Fidelity and adaptation. AIDS Education and Prevention, 12, 87–98.?

Knell, P., & Latta, S. (2005). The college union dynamic. ACUI.

Knight, J. (2009). What can we do about teacher resistance? Phi Delta Kappan, 90(7), 508.

Knoche, L. L., Sheridan, S. M., Edwards, C. P., & Osborn, A. Q. (2010). Implementation of a relationship-based school readiness intervention: A multidimensional approach to fidelity measurement for early childhood. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(3), 299–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.05.003

Knowles, M. (Ed.). (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. Follett.

Köse, M. (2017). The role of high school history teachers on university students’ attitudes toward history Classes. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 17(4), 1291–1316. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2017.4.0297

Kratochwill, T. R., Volpiansky, P., Clements, M., & Ball, C. (2007). Professional development in implementing and sustaining multitier prevention models: Implications for response to intervention. School Psychology Review, 36(4), 618–631.

Kuh, G. D., Schuh, J. H., Whitt, E. J., Andreas, R. E., Lyons, J. W., Strange, C. C., et al. (1991). Involving colleges: Successful approaches to fostering student learning and development outside the classroom. Jossey-Bass.

Kuyini, A., B. (2010, April 4). Inclusive education in Ghana: Are we achieving the vision? GhanaWeb. https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Inclusive-Education-In-Ghana-Are-We-Achieving-The-Vision-179726

Kuyini, A. B., & Boitumelo, M. (2011). Student teachers’ attitudes and concerns about inclusive education in Ghana and Botswana. International Journal of Whole Schooling, 7(1). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ939056.pdf

LaChausse, R. G., Clark, K. R., & Chapple, S. (2014). Beyond teacher training: The critical role of professional development in maintaining curriculum fidelity. Journal of Adolescent Health, 54, 53–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adohealth.2013.12.029

Lakin, J. M., & Shannon, D. M. (2015). The role of treatment acceptability, effectiveness, and understanding in treatment fidelity: Predicting implementation variation in a middle school science program. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 47, 28–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2015.06.002

Leadbeater, B., Gladstone, E., Thompson, R. S., Sukhawathanakul, P., & Desjardins, T. (2012). Getting started: assimilatory process of uptake in mental health promotion and primary prevention programs in elementary schools. Advances in School Mental Health Promotion, 5,258–276.

Leatherman, J. M. (2007). “I just see all children as children”: Teachers’ perceptions about inclusion. Qualitative Report, 12(4), 594–611. ezproxy.gardner-webb.edu/login=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ800274&site=ehost-live

Lee, M. I. A. (2014). The difference between IEPs and 504 plans. Understood. https://www.understood.org/en/school-learning/special-services/504-plan/the-difference-between-ieps-and-504-plans

Leithwood, K., Jantzi, D., & Steinbach, R (1999). Changing leadership for changing times. Open University Press.

Leroy, N., Bressoux, P., Sarrazin, P., & Trouilloud, D. (2007). Impact of teachers’ implicit theories and perceived pressures on the establishment of an autonomy supportive classroom. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 22(4), 529–545.?

Lewin, K. (1936). Principles of topological psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Lewis, A., & Porter, J. (2004). Interviewing children and young people with learning disabilities: Guidelines for researchers and multi-professional practice. In Lewis, A., & Porter, J. (Eds.), British journal of learning disabilities (pp. 191-197). BILD Publications.

Lewis, M., & Staehler, T. (2010). Phenomenology an introduction. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group

Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Sage Publications.

Lindsay, G. (2007). Educational psychology and the effectiveness on inclusive education/ mainstreaming. British Journal of Educational psychology, 77, 1- 24.

Lodge, A., & Lynch, K. (Eds). (2004). Diversity at school. Dublin: Institute of Public Administration for the Equality Authority.

Loreman, T., Deppeler, J., & Harvey, D. (2005). Inclusive education: a practical guide to supporting diversity in the classroom, NSW: Allen & Unwin

Lynch, S., Taymans, J., Watson, W. A., Ochsedorf, R. J., Pyke, C., & Szesze, M. J. (2007). Effectiveness of a highly rated science curriculum unit for students with disabilities in general education classrooms. Exceptional Children, 73(2), 202–223.

Macmillan, R., & Meyer, M. J. (2006). Inclusion and guilt: The emotional fallout for teachers. (Report). Exceptionality Education. Canada.

Maheady, L., Jabot, M., Rey, J., & Michiell-Pendl, J. (2007). An early field-based experience and its impact on pre-service candidates’ teaching practice and their pupils’ outcomes. Teacher Education & Special Education, 30(1), 24–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/088840640703000103

Maheady, L., Magiera, K., & Simmons, R. (2016). Building and sustaining school-university partnerships in rural settings: One approach for improving special education service delivery. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 35(2), 33–40.?

Malcom-Piqueux, L., & Bensimon, E. M. (2017). Taking equity-minded action to close equity gaps. Peer Review, 19(2), 5–8.

Malikow, M. (2006). Teaching in the affective domain: Turning a crier into a crier. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 43(1), 36–38.

Martin, S. (2006). The classroom environment and children’s performance – is there a relationship? In M. Blades, & C. Spender (Eds.), Children and their environments (pp. 91-107). Cambridge University Press.?

Marston, D. (1996). A comparison of inclusion only, pull-out only, and combined service models for students with mild disabilities. The Journal of Special Education, 30(2), 121–132.

Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 397–422. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.397

McGrew, J. H., Pescosolido, B., & Wright, E. (2003). Case managers’ perspectives on critical ingredients of assertive community treatment and on its implementation. Psychiatric Services, 54, 370–376.

McHugo, G. J., Drake, R. E., Teague, G. B., & Xie, H. (1999). The relationship between model fidelity and client outcomes in the New Hampshire Dual Disorders Study. Psychiatric Services, 50, 818–824.

McKeown, S., Stringer, M., & Cairns, E. (2015). Classroom segregation: Where do students sit and how is this related to group relations? British Educational Research Journal, 42(1), 40–55. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3200

McLaren, S. J. (2013). Is inclusive education right for every child? An account by the parent of a child with high and complex needs due to autism spectrum disorder. Kairaranga, 14(2), 26–34. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1025671.pdf

Meisels, S. J. (1978). First steps in mainstreaming. Early Childhood, 4, 1–2.?

Mejia, I. (2015). Mainstreaming of students with disabilities: Psychological effects on general education high school students (Publication No. 567). Capstone Projects and Master’s Theses. https://digitalcommons.csumb.edu/caps_thes_restricted/567

Merriam, S. B. (2002). Qualitative research in practice: Examples for discussion and analysis. Josey-Bass.

Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2015). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass.

Memisevic, H., & Hodzi, S. (2011). Teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion of students with intellectual disability in Bosnia and Herzegovina. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 15(7), 699–710. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603110903184001

Mihalic, S. (2002). The importance of implementation fidelity. Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence. http://www.incredibleyears.com/Library/items/fidelity-importance.pdf

Mihalic, S. (2004). The importance of implementation fidelity. Emotional and Behavioral Disorders in Youth, 4, 83–105.

Mihalic, S. F., Fagan, A. A., & Argamaso, S. (2008). Implementing the life skills training drug prevention program: Factors related to implementation fidelity. Implementation Science, 3, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-3-5

Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.

Mills, S. C., & Ragan, T. J. (2000). A tool for analyzing implementation fidelity of an integrated learning system (ILS). Educational Technology Research and Development, 48, 21–41.

Mittler, P. (2000). Working towards inclusive education: Social contexts. David Fulton Publishers.

Mohd, S. N. H., Goh, G. G. G., & Fathi, N. M. (2012). Factors affecting motivations to share knowledge among university students. In Proceeding of the International Conference on Management, Economics and Finance (ICMEF 2012) (pp. 693-703). Global Research Agency.

Monahan, T. (2002). Flexible space and built pedagogy: Emerging IT embodiments. Invention, 4(1). www.doit.gmu.edu/inventio/past/display_past.asp

Moula, A., Mohseni, S., Starrin, B., Scherp, H. Å., & Puddephatt, A. J. (2010). The intelligent method of learning. Reclaiming Children & Youth, 19(3), 26–31.

Mousley, J. A., Rice, M., & Tregenza. (1993). Integration of students with disabilities into regular schools: Policy in use. Disability, Handicap and Society, 8(1), 59–70.

Moustakas, C. (1990). Heuristic research: Design, methodology, and applications. Sage Publications.

Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Sage Publications.

Mowbray, C., Holter, M. C., Teague, G. B., & Bybee, D. (2003). Fidelity criteria: Development, measurement, and validation. American Journal of Evaluation, 24(3), 315–340.

National Association of State Directors of Special Education. (2005). Response to intervention: Policy considerations and implementation. National Association of State Directors of Special Education, Inc.

National Center on Early Childhood Development, Teaching, and Learning. (2016). Curriculum implementation fidelity. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Administration for Children & Families, Head Start Early Childhood Learning & Knowledge Center. https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/1025-curriculum-fidelity-handout.pdf

National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities. (2005). Responsiveness to intervention and learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 28(4), 249–260.

Naylor, P., Nettlefold, L., Race, D., Hoy, C., Ashe, M. C., Wharf Higgins, J., & McKay, H. A. (2015). Implementation of school based physical activity interventions: A systematic review. Preventive Medicine, 72, 95–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.12.034

Newman, E. J. (1999). In the trenches: Increasing competency of teachers-in training by having them conduct individualized interventions. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 26(1), 36.

Niesyn, M. E. (2009). Strategies for success: Evidence-based instructional practices for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Preventing School Failure, 53(4), 227–233.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110. 115 STAT. 1425. (2002). http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/107-110.pdf

Norlin, J. W. (2009). The answer book on special education law (5th ed.). LPR Publications.

Novelli, J. (1997, September). Seating solutions. Instructor [1990], 107(2), 78+. ezproxy.nwciowa.edu/login=http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.nwciowa.edu/ps/i.do?p=PROF&sw=w&u=oran58619&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA19844867&asid=8f3a3be9ffe7cf1f5d275e81f8c8a107

O’Donnell, C. L. (2008). Defining, conceptualizing, and measuring fidelity of implementation and its relationship to outcomes in K–12 curriculum intervention research. Review of Educational Research, 78(1), 33–84.

Osgood, R. L. (2005). The history of inclusion in the United States. Gallaudet University Press.

Palley, E. (2006). Challenges of rights-based law: Implementing the least restrictive environment mandate. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 16(4), 229–235.

Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. Sage Publications.

Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.

Payne, G., & Payne, J. (2004). Key concepts in social research. Sage Publications.

Pijl, S. J., Meijer, C., & Hegarty, S. (Eds.). (1997). Inclusive education: A global agenda. Routledge.

Poplin, M. S., & Stone, S. (1992). Paradigm shifts instructional strategies: From reductionism to holistic/constructivism. In W. Stainback & S. Stainback (Eds.), Controversial issues confronting special education: Divergent perspectives (pp. 153-180). Allyn & Bacon.

Porter, G. L. (2010). Making Canadian schools inclusive: A call to action. Education Canada, 44(1), 62–66.

Pruitt, R. (2017). Chapter 7: Constructivist approaches online and face-to-face: The essential role of trust. Curriculum & Teaching Dialogue, 19(1/2), 105–127.

Putnam, J. (1998). Cooperative learning and strategies for inclusion. Paul Brookes.

Rabin, L. A., Fogel, J., & Nutter-Upham, K. E. (2011). Academic procrastination in college students: The role of self-reported executive function. Journal of Clinical & Experimental Neuropsychology, 33(3), 344–357. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2010.518597

Reiser, R., & Secretariat, C. (2012). Implementing inclusive education: a commonwealth guide to implementing article 24 of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Commonwealth Secretariat London. http://addc.byte2.com/documents/resources/inclusive_education_final_word_text[1]1080.doc

Roberts, G. J., Capin, P., Roberts, G., Miciak, J., Quinn, J. M., & Vaughn, S. (2018). Examining the effects of afterschool reading interventions for upper elementary struggling readers. Remedial & Special Education, 39(3), 131–143. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932517750818

Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (4th ed.). Free Press.?

Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). Free Press.

Rogers, E. M., & Shoemaker, F. F. (1971). Communication of innovations: A cross-cultural approach (2nd ed.). Free Press.

Rohrbach, L. A., Dent, C. W., Skara, S., Sun, P., & Sussman, S. (2007). Fidelity of implementation in Project Towards No Drug Abuse (TND): A comparison of classroom teachers and program specialists. Prevention Science, 8(2), 125–132.

Rohrbach, L. A., Gunning, M., Sun, P. &, Sussman, S. (2010). The project towards no drug abuse (TND) dissemination trial: Implementation fidelity and immediate outcomes. Prevention Science, 11(1), 77–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-009-0151-z

Ryndak, D. L., Taub, D., Jorgensen, C. M., Gonsier-Gerdin, J., Arndt, K., Sauer, J., & … Allcock, H. (2014). Policy and the impact on placement, involvement, and progress in general education: Critical issues that require rectification. Research & Practice For Persons with Severe Disabilities, 39(1), 65–74.

Sanetti, L., & Kratochwill, T. (2008). Treatment integrity in behavioral consultation: Measurement, promotion, and outcomes. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 4(1), 95–114.

Schunk, D. H. (2004). Learning theories: An educational perspective. Merrill Prentice/Hall.

Shabani, K., Khatib, M., & Ebadi, S. (2010). Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development: Instructional implications and teachers’ professional development. English Language Teaching, 3(4), 237–248.

Sharma, U., Loreman, T., & Forlin, C. (2012). Measuring teacher efficacy to implement inclusive practices. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 12(1), 12–21.

Sec?er, Z. (2010). An analysis of the effects of in-service teacher training on Turkish preschool teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion. International Journal of Early Years Education, 18(1), 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669761003693959

Seidman, I. (2006). Interviewing as qualitative research (3rd ed.). Teachers College Press.

Semmel, M. I., Abernathy, T. V., Butera, G., & Lesar, S. (1991). Teacher perceptions of the regular education initiative. Exceptional Children, 58(1), 9–23.?

Shani, M. (2010). Towards an ecological approach to inclusion. In I. Margolin (Ed.), Crossing the beyond: A multi-track teacher education program- an ongoing discourse (pp. 148-170). Mofet and Levinsky College of Education.

Shento, A. K. (2004). Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects. Education for Information, 22(2), 63–75.

Shoulders, T. L., & Krei, M. S. (2016). Rural secondary educators’ perceptions of their efficacy in the inclusive classroom. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 35(1), 23–30.

Silva, J. C, & Morgado, J. (2004). Support teachers’ beliefs about the academic achievement of students with special educational needs. British Journal of Special Education, 31, 207–214.

Skilton-Sylvester, E., & Slesaransky-Poe, G. (2009). More than a least restrictive environment: Living up to the civil covenant in building inclusive schools. Perspectives on Urban Education, 6(1), 32–27. www.urbaned journal.org/

Slavin, R. E. (2006). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (8th ed.). Pearson.

Smith, S. J., Frey, B. B., & Tollefson, N. (2003). A collaborative cohort approach to teacher education: Modeling inclusive practices. Action Teacher Education, 25(1), 55–62.

Smith, D. D., Robb, S. M., West, J., & Tyler, N. C. (2010). The changing education landscape: How special education leadership preparation can make a difference for teachers and their students with disabilities. Teacher Education and Special Education, 33(1), 25–43.

Smith, D. D, Tyler, N., & Skow, K. (2003). Effective inclusion of students with disabilities in general education classrooms. The IDEA and Research for Inclusive Settings Center.

Spiegelberg, H. (1965). The phenomenological movement: A historical introduction (vol. 2). Martinus Nijhoff.

Strange, C. C., & Banning, J. H. (2001). Educating by design: Creating colleges and universities that work. Jossey-Bass.

Strange, C. C., & Banning, J. H. (2015). Designing for learning: Creating campus learning environments for student success (2nd ed.). Jossey-Bass.

Stead, M., Stradling, R., Macneil, M., Mackintosh, A. M., & Minty, S. (2007). Implementation evaluation of the Blueprint multi-component drug prevention program: Fidelity of school component delivery. Drug & Alcohol Review, 26(6), 653–664. https://doi.org/10.1080/09595230701613809

Stein, M. (2007). Quick overview of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and its implications for Americans with disabilities. Mental and Physical Disability Law Reporter, 31(5), 679–683.

Stokas, A. G. (2015). A genealogy of grit: Education in the new gilded age. Educational Theory, 65(5), 513–528. https://doi.org/10.1111/edth.12130

Subban, P., & Sharma, U. (2006). Primary school teachers’ perceptions of inclusive education in Victoria, Australia. International Journal of Special Education, 21(1).

Sugai, G., & Horner, R. H. (2009). Responsiveness-to-intervention and school-wide positive behavior supports: Integration of multi-tiered system approaches. Exceptionality, 17(4), 223–237.

Symeonidou, S., & Phtiaka, H. (2009). Using teachers’ prior knowledge, attitudes and beliefs to develop in-service teacher education courses for inclusion. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(4), 543–550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2009.02.001

Taylor, S. (2001). The continuum and current controversies in the USA. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 26(1), 15–33.

Taylor, S. S. (2008). Effects of studio space on teaching and learning: Preliminary findings from two case studies. Innovative Higher Education, 33(1), 217–228.

Teague, G. B., Bond, G. R., & Drake, R. E. (1998). Program fidelity and Assertive Community Treatment: Development and use of a measure. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 68, 216–232.

Teague, G. B., Drake, R. E., & Ackerson, T. H. (1995). Evaluating use of continuous treatment teams for persons with mental illness and substance abuse. Psychiatric Services, 46, 689–695.

Thorpe, S. (1995). Adapting the external environment. British Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation, 2, 479–482.

Thorius, K. K., & Maxcy, B. D. (2015). Critical practice analysis of special education policy: An RtI example. Remedial & Special Education, 36(2), 116–124. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932514550812

Tilly, W. D. (2008). The evolution of school psychology to science-based practice: Problem solving and the three-tiered model. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 17-36). National Association of School Psychologists

Tilstone, C., Florian, L., & Rose, R. (1998). Promoting inclusive practice. Routledge.

Timmons, V. (2002). International perspectives on inclusion: Concluding thoughts. Exceptionality Education Canada, 12, 187–192.

Titone, C. (2005). The philosophy of inclusion: Roadblocks and remedies for the teacher and the teacher educator. Journal or Educational Thought, 39(1), 7–32.

Tobin, G. A., & Begley, C. M. (2004). Methodological rigor within a qualitative framework. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 48(4), 388–396. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2004.03207.x

Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, A. W. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17(7), 783–805.

Tucker, B. P., & Parker, L. D. (2014). Comparing interview interaction modes in management accounting research: A case to answer? AAA 2015 Management Accounting Section (MAS) Meeting. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm.abstractid=2480247

Turnbull, A., Turnbull, R., Wehmeyer, M. L., & Shogren, K. A. (2013). Exceptional lives: Special education in today’s schools. Pearson Education, Inc.

Turner, B. (2009). The phenomenological research method as a valid human sciences research tool in to the investigation of human behavior. In The refractive thinker: An anthology of higher learning, Volume II: Research methodology. The Lentz Leadership Institute LLC.

U.S. Department of Education (2010). Thirty-five years of progress educating children with disabilities through IDEA. http:/www.2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/idea35/history/index_pg10.html

Vander Schee, B. A. (2011). Marketing classroom spaces: Is it really better up front? Marketing Education Review, 21(3), 201–210.

Van Manen, M. (1990), Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. State University of New York Press.

Van Manen M. (2006). Writing qualitatively, or the demands of writing. Qualitative Health Research, 16(5), 713–722. ?

Vernon-Dotson, L. J. (2008). Promoting inclusive education through teacher leadership teams: a school reform initiative. Journal of School Leadership, 18(3), 344–73.

Villa, R. A., & Thousand, J. S. (2003). Making inclusive education work. Educational Leadership, 61(2), 19.

Vogl, S. (2013). Telephone versus face-to-face interviews: Mode effect on semi-structured interviews with children. Sociological Methodology, 43(1), 133–177. https://doi.org/10.1177/0081175012465967

Voltz, D. L., Brazil, N., & Ford, A. (2001). What matters most in inclusive education: A practical guide for moving forward. Intervention in School and Clinic, 37, 23–30.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (M. Cole, V John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Harvard University Press.

Yeager, D., & Dweck, C. (2012). Mindsets that promote resilience: When students believe that personal characteristics can be developed. Educational Psychologist, 47(4), 302–314.

Yell, M., Rogers, D., & Rogers E. (1998). The legal history of special education: What a long strange trip it’s been! Remedial and Special Education, 19,219–228.

Young, C. M. (2006). A study of the perception of paraprofessionals and teachers regarding the roles of paraprofessionals in the classroom (Publication No. AAT 3240164)[Doctoral Dissertation, Mississippi State University]. Dissertations & Theses: Full Text.

Yoon, K., Duncan, T., Lee, S., Scarloss, B., & Shapley, K. (2007). Reviewing the evidence on how teacher professional development affects student achievement. Regional Educational Laboratory, 33, 1–55.

Wang, M. C. (1981). Mainstreaming exceptional children: Some instructional design and implementation considerations. The Elementary School Journal, 81(1), 195–221.

Wang, M. C., & Birch, J. W. (1984). Comparison of a full-time mainstreaming program and a resource room approach. Exceptional Children, 51, 33–40.

Wannarka, R., & Ruhl, K. (2008). Seating arrangements that promote positive academic and behavioral outcomes: A review of empirical research. Support for Learning, 23(2), 89–93.

Warford, M. K. (2011). The zone of proximal teacher development. Teaching & Teacher Education, 27(2), 252–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2010.08.008

Warnock, M., & Norwich, B. (2010). Special educational needs: A new look (2nd ed.). Continuum International Publishing.

Wasburn-Moses, L. (2009). An exploration of pre-service teachers’ expectations for their future roles. Teacher Education and Special Education, 32(1), 5–16.

Wasik, B. A., Bond, M. A., & Hindman, A. (2006). The effects of a language and literacy intervention on Head Start children and teachers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(1), 63–74.

Weinstein, C. S. (1991). The classroom as a social context for learning. Annual Review of Psychology, 42, 493–525.

Winter, E. C. (2006). Preparing new teachers for inclusive schools and classrooms. Support for Learning, 21(2), 85–91.

Wright, P. W., & Wright, P. D. (2012). Special education law (2nd ed.). Harbour House Law Press Inc.

Wolcott, H. F. (1990). On seeking–and rejecting–validity in qualitative research. In E. W.

Wolery, M. (2005). DEC recommended practices: Child-focused practices. In S. Sandall, M. L. Hemmeter, B. J. Smith, & M. E. McLean (Eds.), DEC recommended practices (pp. 71-106). DEC.

Zhang, D., Landmark, L., Reber, A., Hsu, H., Kowk, O., & Benz, M. (2010). University faculty knowledge, beliefs, and practices, in providing reasonable accommodations to students with disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 31(4), 276–286.

Book Review: The New One Minute Manager

Carolina Arcaya

In the search for a special kind of manager, a bright young man traveled for many years. He was looking for someone who could lead and manage in today’s ever-changing world, someone who encouraged people to balance their work and their life and make their job meaningful and enjoyable. It was a tough search; he went through many towns and cities; he talked to managers of different industries and heard them talking about their different management styles. After searching for a while, he started to get disappointed. It seemed there was no balance; he mostly found managers interested more in results than in people or managers who were more interested in people than results. Thinking there must be a middle ground, where managers manage themselves and the people they work for profit from their presence; he kept searching until he finally heard incredible stories about a special manager, whom people like to work with and together would produce great results.

The young man quickly called his office and made an appointment; surprisingly enough, the manager was available, offering him to come in at a convenient time. At first, he was curious and could not believe the manager could see him so fast. He was puzzled and wanted to know more about his management style, which people talked so much about. The visit to his office was the first step that made him realize that it is possible to find the manager he was looking for and that using the correct strategy can make all the difference when it comes to managing a team and leading them to be successful while enjoying their work; realizing that to successful managers must be both result-oriented and people-oriented.

This book gives a clear and easy-to-follow management style, called the “New One Minute Manager.” It explains how by applying three basic principles, managers can get great results in very little time. One Minute Manager is a management style that inspires people and allows them to innovate using their knowledge and drawing on their talent. It is a collaborative system, where people and managers participate in making key points but where the individual makes the final decision, making them feel good about themselves and, as a consequence producing good results.

 

Main Themes

            After a long search for a different management style in today’s ever-changing world, a bright young man finally finds what he is looking for; The New One Minute Manager. This new and innovative style combines people-oriented management with results-oriented management to get quality results quickly. It focuses on investing in people and drawing on their individual talents, facilitating and giving them the resources they need to make their own decisions. This innovative management style differs from the old way of thinking, which usually uses top-down management; it inspires people and promotes innovation. The One Minute Manager focuses on three main secrets; developing One Minute Goals; using One Minute Praising, and using One Minute Re-directs.

            The first thing the young man noticed when he came into the manager’s office, he had heard so much about, was how calm he was and how much time he seemed to have to be a manager, which made him immediately see something different about this management style. The One Minute Management insists on investing in people and leading with collaboration, where the manager facilitates individuals with the necessary information to make their own decisions and participates in the thinking process but encourages them to use their knowledge to solve problems. The philosophy behind the One Minute Management style is not just about the quantity but the quality of the job, and the best way to achieve successful results is with the people that work in the organization. “People who feel good about themselves produce good results” (Pg. 9). In the One Minute Management style, the manager believes that when people achieve goals and are able to resolve their own situations successfully, they feel good about themselves, and as a consequence, they put their best effort and produce quality work. Investing in people is essential for the organization; training them and giving them the resources to be successful is critical in order to produce great results. This was the beginning of the young man’s research into this new management style and what specific steps managers should take in order for the strategy to work.

            In his journey to find out each step, he interviewed Teresa Lee, a lady who was part of the management team. She revealed the first secret of this management style; The One Minute Goals. Setting One Minute Goals is the beginning of One Minute Management. As she described to the young man, setting goals is critical because it allows the manager and the employee to be on the same page; people know what to do and what is expected of them. When setting goals, the manager and employee work together. The manager listens to what the employee has to say and what ideas they have, working side by side with them and letting them know their responsibilities, having clear what is expected from them. In the One Minute Management style, the goals must be written each on a separate paper and must not be more than a paragraph, setting three to five goals unless a particular project requires more. The employees need to look at the goals and review them frequently to see if what we are doing matches with their goals, that way, they do not lose focus. Having more people on the team acting on their own, confident and secure of their decisions, makes the organization work better and, consequently, be more efficient and produce quality results. These seemed like simple rules, but it was just the beginning, next the young man visited another member of the manager’s team; Paul.

            Paul was the second member of the manager’s team, who gave the young man the second secret of the One Minute Management style; One Minute Praisings. This refers to how the manager should always let the employee know how he/she is doing in a very clear way. This is a crucial part of the process and even though it can be uncomfortable is necessary to learn. In One Minute Management is all about catching people doing something right. “ Help people reach their full potential, catch them doing something right” (Pg. 28). In order to be a successful manager and produce quality work, it is necessary to emphasize the positive; this is why catching people doing something right, especially at the beginning of a new task, is so important. It allows the manager to give the individual a One Minute Praise, reinforcing they have done something right, making them feel good about themselves, and encouraging them to keep the good work. Instead of waiting for the performance review, it tells employees precisely what they did right. By giving One Minute Praisings, people gain confidence, which helps them deal with changes that happen on a daily basis. One Minute Praisings have two parts; in the first half-minute, the manager must praise people as soon as possible; letting them know what they did right, being very specific; then pause for a moment to let people feel good about what they have done and after in the second half-minute encourage them to do more, making it clear the organization has confidence in them and their success.

            The last meeting the young man had was at Levy’s office, another member of the manager’s team. He gave him the third key secret of the One Minute Management style; the One Minute Re-direct. Praising people does not work unless the manager provides Re-direct to correct the mistakes when they occur. Re-direct helps people get back on track and achieve their goals. A One Minute Re-direct helps people learn because they can see what they need to do differently next time.  Before implementing the strategy, first, the manager makes sure the goals they have created are clear, and if they are not, the manager takes full responsibility for that and clarifies them; then the manager provides the One Minute Re-Direct in two parts. In the first half-minute managers should re-direct people as soon as possible; confirm the facts and review the mistakes together and express how he feels about the mistakes and its impact on results; after the manager, most do a pause for few seconds to allow people to feel concerned about what they have done; lastly on the second half-minute managers should remember to always let employees know they are better than their mistake; reminding them that he has confidence and trust in them and lastly realize that when the Re-Direct is over it’s over.

The young man now could see the complete cycle of the One Minute Manager; goals clarify what to focus on, Praisings build confidence, and Re-Directs address the mistakes. All together make people feel good about themselves and produce good results.

            After researching and talking to the managers’ team, the young man returned to the manager’s office, where he drew his final conclusions and realized the key for all of it to work is to keep adapting the three secrets in today’s changing world. Besides the three secrets, to manage a team successfully, people must enjoy working in the company and collaborate with each other to get great results. “The best minute I spend is the one I invest in people. (Pg. 51), most companies spend more money and time maintaining their buildings and buying new equipment but invest very little in developing people, which is key for all of it to work. It is important to take the time to let people know what they are aiming for so they can be motivated to reach the goal and give them feedback on the results to keep them going. It is important as a manager to catch people doing something right, especially at the beginning, building their confidence and moving them towards the desired goal. People who are learning benefit from praise and encouragement, reason why One Minute Praising works so well. Rather than punishing someone if they make a mistake, using One Minute Re-direct helps them see what went wrong and learn from it. When using the One Minute Management style, feedback happens in small doses allowing people to transform as they go and deal with one issue at a time. Managers always want to eliminate the mistake but keep the good person and not make them feel attacked. “ We are not just our behavior; we are the person managing our behavior” (Pg. 79), meaning the manager’s job is to show people how to manage themselves, enjoy it and succeed when the manager is not around, being independent while producing great results.

            An incredible insight into being an effective manager is explained through the book in a straightforward and understandable way. It allows the readers to have an introspective on how a manager, as well as an employee, thinks and how the synergy between them creates great results. The One Minute Management gives managers three key secrets on how to improve their job and get the best results of people by getting them to stay motivated, know what their specific goals are, praising them when they do a good job, and re-directing them when mistakes happen.

 

Key Quotes

            “ People who feel good about themselves, produce good results” (Pg.9). This quote entails that helping people feel good about themselves is key to productivity since when people are proud of themselves, they are more productive, which goes along with the quality of work they do.

            “Help people reach their full potential, catch them doing something right” (Pg. 28). Putting the accent on the positive by catching people doing something right makes a big difference, especially at the beginning while they are learning. It allows people to know what they have done right without waiting for a performance review, helping them keep on track and achieve the desired goals.

            “ The best minute I spend is the one I invest in people” (Pg. 51). It is of utmost importance that managers invest in developing their people. Investing time in employees allows them to know exactly what they are supposed to do and what they are aiming at. It is people who get results, reason why investing in developing them makes such a big difference in the organization’s results. Successful managers facilitate the information and resources people in their organization need to succeed but allows people to make their own decisions, drawing on their talents and collaborating as a group.

            “Everyone is a potential winner. Some people are disguised as losers. Do not let their appearance fool you” (Pg. 59). It is not always necessary to hire winners, which are difficult to find and expensive; investing in people within the organization allows the manager to develop their employees to become winners even if they did not seem like one at the beginning. Drawing from internal resources and investing in people encourages them to be better and further allows them to develop professionally and feel enthusiastic about moving forward within the organization.

            “Take a minute to look at your goals, then look at what you are doing, and see if it matches your goals” (Pg. 62). It is crucial that after managers make goals with their employees, they encourage them to read them on a daily basis and look if what they are doing matches what they are supposed to be doing. This daily exercise allows the employee to focus and re-direct if needed, checking if their performance matches the desired goals.

             “Goals begin behaviors. Consequences influence behaviors” (Pg. 84). This reminds us how goals and consequences are related; using this same frame, One Minute Goals, Praisings and Re-Directs work together. Every action has a consequence, and this shapes how we will act in the future when a similar situation arises.

Strengths and Weaknesses

            One Minute Manager is an easy-to-read but very effective management style that can be utilized in any organization. It has a very specific three-step powerful formula that managers can use as a guide to lead and review while in leadership positions in today’s changing world. It makes the reader think not only about the manager’s perspective but the employee’s perspective making it very easy to understand why the formula works.

            The biggest strength the book offers is that the three key secrets of the One Minute Management style, One Minute Goals, One Minute Praisings and, One Minute Re-Direct, are adaptable to today’s changing world. It is important for the strategy to work to have everyone on board and create a culture where collaboration is key, and people are willing to work towards the same goal, producing great results.

            The book’s simple language makes it very easy to understand; readers can immediately take away every section’s key points, put them to practice, and become a One Minute Manager themselves. To become a One Minute Manager, managers have to; keep things simple, set One Minute Goals, give One Minute Praising and provide One Minute Re-directs. Even though it is not as easy as it sounds, it is a great principle for managers to follow. Having concrete goals have been proven to produce the best results, even in our personal lives.

            Another great strength of this management style is that it sparks people’s creativity, encouraging them to use their own knowledge and develop their own solutions. It is always important to remember that in order for this to happen, managers need to create clear goals with their employees and work side by side with them, listening to their input and encouraging them to use their knowledge. Having clear goals has been proven to get better results when managing people. When goals are clear, employees know what they are aiming at, and their competitive nature makes the quality of their work better while they are inspired to do more while enjoying what they do, feeling they are a valuable piece of the organization.

            The greatest strength of successful managers is to adapt to change and work collaboratively with their team to create great results. As mentioned in the book sharing this management style is a gift that can help many managers around the world apply simple strategies that can make a great difference in their organizations.

 

Comparison to Fullan

            One Minute Managers relates in many ways to Fullan’s text “Leading in a Culture of Change,” which primarily focuses on managers and staff working collaboratively towards the same goals and setting clear expectations of what the staff is being accountable for.

            Starting in the first chapter, Fullan describes the complexity of an ever-changing world and how leaders need to adapt and change with it; One Minute Manager is an adaptable management style that can be used in any organization in today’s changing world. The One Minute Manager principles relate to the ones expressed by Fullan in his book. Leaders need moral purpose to reach long-term success. This is done by acting to make a positive difference, where the employees are motivated and feel part of the organization, valued and respected. One Minute manager reflects Fullan’s framework in each of its parts. It emphasizes a combination of understanding change, making meaningful relationships, and creating a positive work environment, developing coherence, and inspiring the people to find purpose in the organization and commiting to achieving greater results.

             As in One Minute Manager, Fullan also states in his textbook that in order for leaders to be successful, collaboration in relation to work is the key. In the One Minute Manager strategy, the manager works with the staff to create concise, clear goals. The manager, as the leader, listens to what everyone has to say, and then the employees come up with the goals on their own. The manager facilitates the resources and information they need, but ultimately they create their own goals.

            As stated by Fullan, effective leadership inspires more than empowers. It connects more than it controls; One Minute Manager principles align with all of these and empowers people to draw on their knowledge to solve situations that arise every day.

 

References

Blanchard, K. H., & Johnson, S. (2015). The new one minute manager.

Fullan, M. (2020). Leading in a culture of change.