April 2020 – Special Educator e-Journal

Factors Affect Transition to Postsecondary Education for Minority Students Who Are Deaf and Hard of Hearing

By Anwar Alsalamah

Washington State University

The current literature review was conducted to identify the common factors that affect the success of minority students who are deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) in their transition to post-secondary education. The result shows that inadequate academic preparation is one of the factors that prevent these students from successfully meeting the requirements of post-secondary education. In addition, parental involvement in the transitional planning of these students is not as effective as a result of the many challenges parents face. The results also show the lack of appropriate opportunities to develop non-academic skills, especially those related to self-determination and self-advocacy, despite their importance in supporting minority students who are DHH in achieving a successful transition to post-secondary education. Suggestions to improve the current situation as well as recommendations for implications and future research are discussed.

Keywords: Transition, deaf, hard of hearing, minority, postsecondary education.

 

Factors Affect Transition to Postsecondary Education for Minority Students Who Are Deaf and Hard of Hearing

In 2017, 83.7% of students who are deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) in the United States completed high school successfully (Garberoglio, Palmer, Cawthon, & Sales, 2019). Those students are increasingly enrolled in post-secondary education with their hearing peers (Richardson, Marschark, Sarchet, & Sapere, 2010). Data from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2) indicated that the enrollment rate of students who are DHH in any type of post-secondary education is 75% (Newman et al., 2011). Yet, the attainment rates among students who are DHH of different ethnicities and races are lower than those of their hearing peers (Garberoglio et al., 2019). Only 18.8? of students who are DHH completed their bachelor’s degrees (Garberoglio et al., 2019). The low completion rates among post-secondary students who are DHH may be due to the ineffective preparation of these students in K-12 settings and to the ineffectiveness of higher education institutions in meeting the needs of these students (Coyle, Morrison, & Thomas, 2017). Luft (2014) has pointed out the importance of providing students who are DHH with more in-depth specialized transition programs to support their unique transition needs and assist them in achieving academic success in post-secondary education.

Transition to post-secondary education is a challenge for students with disabilities, and to facilitate it, these students need to prepare in advance (Gil, 2007). Prior planning for the transition of students with disabilities to post-secondary education would enable them to meet the admission requirements and succeed at that stage (Stodden, Abhari, & Kong, 2015). Providing students with disabilities with transition services is mandated under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2004) as part of the individualized education program (IEP) for each student with a disability (Prince, Plotner, Yell, & Mazzotti, 2014). Under IDEA, transitional planning for a student with a disability must begin no later than age sixteen (Prince, Katsiyannis, & Farmer, 2013). The transition planning team should consider the individual capabilities and needs of students with disabilities, as well as their access to available services (U.S. Department of Education, 2017). However, students who are DHH have unique transitional needs that differ from those of their peers in general and those in special education, who require specialized preparation to overcome the obstacles faced by these students in transitioning beyond secondary school (Luft, 2016), with consideration to the diversity within this group (Higgins, & Lieberman, 2016).

Students who are DHH are a heterogeneous group. They differ in the age when their hearing loss occurred, their modes of communication, and their educational backgrounds (Wheeler-Scruggs, 2003). Students who are DHH show diversity at many levels. They come from diverse ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds that reflect the same diversity in American society (Higgins, & Lieberman, 2016). The demographic characteristics of students who are DHH who join post-secondary education show that the high percentage of them are minorities from different racial and ethnic backgrounds (Allen, 1994). The percentage of minority students among students who are DHH is estimated at 44% (Garay, 2003). However, transition to post-secondary is a challenge for minority students who are DHH, as there is a lack of organization and coordination of transition planning for these students, which may prevent them from completing post-secondary programs successfully (Luft, 2016). Compared to their peers with disabilities, minority students with disabilities face more complex obstacles to achieving successful access and completion postsecondary education (Avoke, & Simon-Burroughs, 2007; Leake & Cholymay, 2004). The most common challenges facing minority students with disabilities in their transition to post-secondary are related to social inclusion, self-advocacy, self-determination, family involvement, limited English proficiency, and lack of academic preparation, especially with the under-representation of these students in university preparation courses (Leake, & Black, 2005; Leake, & Cholymay, 2004; Oesterreich, & Knight, 2008). Although the increased proportion of minority students who are DHH could create a unique challenge for post-secondary transition (Schildroth, Rawlings, & Allen, 1991), there is little research addressing the challenges of post-secondary transitions faced by minority students with disabilities or the most effective practices to support their success in transition (Halley, & Trujillo, 2013; Leake, Burgstahler, & Izzo, 2011; Thoma, Agran, & Scott, 2016). Therefore, the purpose of this literature review is to identify common transition-related factors that affect the success of minority students who are DHH in their transition to post-secondary education, as well as some suggestions to improve the current situation.

Research Method

In order to examine the factors related to transition that may prevent minority students who are DHH from achieving successful post-secondary education outcomes, a review of empirical research articles published between 1990 and 2019 was conducted. The methods employed included searching for relevant empirical research articles using four electronic databases: Google Scholar, the Elton B. Stephens Company (EBSCO), Sara and George (SAGE), and the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC). Searches in these databases were conducted using the following search terms: “transition,” “high school,” “secondary school,” “post-secondary,” “culturally and linguistically diverse,” “minority,” and “diversity.” To identify the relevant population, these terms were used in combination with the following terms: “deaf,” “hard of hearing,” “hearing loss,” and “students with disabilities.” These searches returned over 2,000 potential articles. From this list, 229 articles that seemed directly connected to the topic were identified. Fifteen out of 50 studies were selected after analysis of titles, abstracts, main headings, and subheadings. The twelve studies that were directly related to the topic were examined in depth, taking into account sample characteristics. The information from these articles was organized into three categories: factors related to academic preparation, factors related to family involvement, and factors related to nonacademic skills. The discussion in this study synthesized the claims, evidence, and information about similar and different aspects of the results of the reviewed studies. The sources of evidence in this literature review were survey data, parents’ reports, student interview, and data from the NLTS2.

Factors Related to Academic Preparation

Given the role of legislation, as well as the role that post-secondary education plays in improving career opportunities for individuals who are DHH, the proportion of students who are DHH joining various higher education institutions has increased (Garberoglio et al., 2019). As it is for other students, transitioning to post-secondary education is difficult for many students with disabilities, but those students face further challenges due to the difference between high school and university settings (Belch, 2004). This especially true for minority students with disabilities, who face unique difficulties in education that may prevent them from achieving successful transition outcomes (Banks, 2014; Leake, & Cholymay, 2004). Recent statistics show that educational attainment rates in the United States among students who are DHH of different races are lower than those of their hearing peers. Only 18.8% of them have completed their bachelor’s degrees (Garberoglio et al., 2019).

April 2020 – Special Educator e-Journal

The inadequate preparation of students who are DHH to meet post-secondary institutions’ academic requirements is one of the factors leading to the withdrawal of such students from these institutions without obtaining a degree (Saunders, 2012). Many students who are DHH enroll in postsecondary education with insufficient academic background knowledge in reading, math, and science (Nagle, Newman, Shaver, & Marschark, 2016). A report based on the NLTS2’s data on the academic performance and secondary school experiences of students who are DHH indicated that there is a gap in the academic performance between students who are DHH and their hearing peers. Students who are DHH perform below average in mathematics, science, reading, and social studies (Shaver, Newman, Huang, Yu, & Knokey, 2011). Indeed, this may be because the curriculum offered to students with disabilities in secondary education is not rigorous enough to prepare them for undergraduate requirements (Brand, Valent, & Danielson, 2013).

To identify opportunities for high school students who are DHH to acquire academic and career skills that would enable them to achieve success beyond secondary school, Nagle et al. (2016) conducted a study to examine the courses that these students were taking in secondary school, using the NLTS2 databases. The results showed that most courses offered to students who are DHH were vocational and non-academic courses, though these students were also taking a few courses related to science, social sciences, and foreign languages. The researchers also noted that despite the importance for post-secondary success of students who are DHH having rigorous courses in mathematics, the math courses offered to them were basic and not as rigorous as those offered to their hearing peers. Likewise, minority students with disabilities are not provided with rigorous courses or curricula that would prepare them well for post-secondary education (Torres, 2019). By interviewing 11 Latino students who are deaf who had attended some institutions of higher education over the past seven years (one group that had graduated and one group that had not graduated yet), Torres (2019) found that one of the differences between the experiences of these two groups that influenced their willingness to face the difficulty of post-secondary education was related to the type of courses they attended when they were in secondary school. Many of the Latino students who are deaf who had not yet graduated indicated that they were not prepared in advance to meet the level of difficulty in post-secondary education.

Although the secondary-level academic achievement of students who are DHH plays an important role in their obtaining academic acceptance for post-secondary education and in their achieving retention and graduation, it is only one of the challenges facing these students (Luft, 2014). The racial and ethnic background of students who are DHH is another factor that has been negatively associated with their academic achievement (Marschark, Shaver, Nagle, & Newman, 2015). Researchers who examined the academic performances of high school students who are DHH found that the performances of white students who are DHH on science, social sciences, and passage comprehension subtests was better than that of Hispanic and African American students who are DHH (Marschark et al., 2015).

According to Leake and Black (2005), proficiency in English is one of the common transition challenges facing minority students with disabilities, and particularly those who are DHH. Therefore, to ensure the successful transition of minority students with disabilities, transition personnel are required to work to meet the English language needs of these students (Leake, & Black, 2005). Students who are DHH may find it difficult to meet the academic language requirements of post-secondary education courses, which underlines the importance of improving English language skills before entering post-secondary education (Saunders, 2012). In their study, Convertino, Marschark, Sapere, Sarchet, and Zupan (2009) identified the variables that predict these students’ willingness to go to college and to learn in college classrooms by analyzing the results of 10 previous experiments conducted with a sample of 568 students who are DHH who enrolled at the Rochester Institute of Technology. The results showed that the English language abilities among students who are DHH were an important predictor of the performance of students who are DHH on the American College Test and of their obtaining college admission. However, the scores that those students obtained in English did not predict their learning in the classroom. This finding is consistent with the findings of Garberoglio, Cawthon, and Bond (2014), who noted that that English literacy was an indicator of enrollment of students who are DHH in post-secondary education, but it did not predict their post-secondary education completion rates.

Indeed, English language learners (ELs) with disabilities may differ from other students with disabilities in terms of economic and family conditions, race/ethnicity, language, and immigration, which may make them vulnerable to marginalization (Trainor et al., 2019). These additional challenges facing these students underline the importance of transitional planning for these students to support them in achieving success in post-secondary education (Trainor et al., 2019). However, in their study, Trainor et al. (2019) indicated that compared to other students with disabilities, ELs with disabilities and their families may face additional challenges in obtaining transitional services. One third of ELs with disabilities indicated that their secondary schools provided them with some transitional support for post-secondary education, which was related to registration for college admission tests and assistance regarding forms of financial assistance aid. While they did not receive support in reviewing the results they received on entrance exams, the results also showed that few ELs with disabilities had taken these exams. In sum, due to the low academic level achieved by students who are DHH in general and those who are minorities in particular, an appropriate academic preparation that prepares them to meet the requirements for enrollment and to achieve success in post-secondary institutions should be taken into account.

Factors Related to Family Involvement

Parental involvement in the transitional planning of students who are DHH is effective (Polat, Kalambouka, & Boyle, 2004). Under IDEA (2004), parents of students with disabilities have the right to being involved in their children’s IEP meetings and to be a part of the transitional planning for their children (§300.322). Establishing cooperative relationships with parents of minority students with disabilities enables schools to meet the needs of those students in an effective manner (Geenen, Powers, & Lopez-Vasquez, 2005). According to Geenen et al. (2001), when parents of minority students with disabilities are involved in the transitional planning for their children, educators receive useful information that will enable them to meet different students’ needs and promote their successful transitions. Such participatory work between schools and parents in transitional planning will enable parents of students who are DHH to receive accurate information they need about their children’s post-secondary opportunities so they can develop realistic expectations and make careful transition plans that, in turn, enable these students to succeed in their transition to post-secondary education and to achieve their desired goals (Danek & Busby, 1999).

April 2020 – Special Educator e-Journal

Despite the importance of parental participation in the transitional planning of students with disabilities, parents of minority students with disabilities may face complicated challenges that prevent them from participating effectively and adequately in planning their children’s transition to postsecondary life (Landmark, Zhang, & Montoya, 2007). To identify those challenges, Geenen et al. (2005) conducted interviews and focus groups with ten professionals who were part of transitional planning, as well as 31 parents from different racial/ethnic backgrounds that included Hispanics, Native Americans, and African Americans. Children of these parents had various disabilities, including DHH. The parents pointed to various issues. They indicated that decisions about their children were made by professionals, without involving them. The results also showed that parents might not have sufficient information about transition and educational procedures and their related rights, as many of them indicated that they signed educational documents for their children without understanding them. Further, the lack of professionals who spoke the native language of these parents was one of the barriers that parents faced in communicating with professionals. Similar findings were also yielded by Povenmire-Kirk, Lindstrom and Bullis’ (2010) study of the barriers that prevent parents of minority students with disabilities from attending and participating in their children’s transition planning. Latino parents of high school students with disabilities indicated that, due to language barriers and cultural differences, they did not have sufficient understanding of the transition planning process and related roles they might have.

It is essential to highlight that language differences have been shown to be one of the common challenges that hinder the participation of minority students’ parents in their children’s transition planning (Geenen et al., 2001; Geenen et al., 2005; Povenmire-Kirk et al., 2010; Trainor et al., 2019). To overcome this challenge, parents should be provided with interpreters in their first language during IEP meetings, along with copies of their children’s IEPs (Landmark et al., 2007). Another challenge facing these parents, which may be related to the language barrier, is the lack of information available to them (Landmark et al., 2007; Trainor et al., 2019). Parents of minority students with disabilities indicated that there is a lack of sufficient information about options available to their children after high school (Trainor et al., 2019). Some parents also pointed out that most of the information they got about these opportunities was in English (Landmark et al., 2007). Providing these parents with the necessary supports, such as translation services and information related to the transition, can contribute to increasing their participation in planning and setting the transition goals for their children, which will in turn be reflected in their expectations about post-secondary education for their children (Trainor et al., 2019). The results of the NLTS2 analysis showed that parents’ expectations for the post-secondary futures of their children and their participation in transitional planning are related to the achievement of these students (Newman, 2005). Compared to students who lacked their parents’ involvement, students whose parents were involved showed better performance in reading, and students whose parents had positive expectations about their post-secondary education showed better performance in mathematics, reading, and class participation (Newman, 2005). Thus, it is important to address the challenges facing parents of minority students who are DHH that prevent them from actively participating in transition planning for their children, as it is evident that parents’ involvement plays an active role in the success of such planning.  

Factors Related to Non-academic Skills

The preparation of students with disabilities to transition to post-secondary should not be limited to academic skills only. There are many non-academic skills that have proven important to these students’ achievement of post-secondary success (Morningstar & Shoemaker, 2018). To provide support concerning non-academic skills to students with disabilities at the secondary level, educators should identify the non-academic skills that students need to transition to post-secondary successfully, and identify goals that will enable them to achieve the required levels in those skills (Gothberg, Peterson, Peak, & Sedaghat, 2015). An important skill that students with disabilities need to transition to post-secondary education is self-determination (Madaus, 2011; Morningstar et al., 2010). According to Wehmeyer (1992), self-determination “refers to the attitudes and abilities required to act as the primary causal agent in one’s life and to make choices regarding one’s actions free from undue external influence or interference” (p. 305). Self-determination consists of a set of components whose development and acquisition contribute to the emergence of self-determined behavior (Wehmeyer, 1999). The components of self-determination include, but are not limited to, choice-making, decision-making, self-advocacy, problem-solving, goal-setting, and self-awareness (Wehmeyer, 1996).

Promoting self-determination among students with disabilities is especially important, as it is one of the factors associated with success in academics and transition to post-secondary (Ju, Zeng, & Landmark, 2017). Studies have shown that it is one of the factors contributing to the academic and social success of students who are DHH (Ayantoye, & Luckner, 2016; Cheng, & Sin, 2018; Luckner, & Stewart, 2003). Cheng and Sin (2018) have found that there is a relationship between self-determination and academic and social integration in higher education setting among students who are DHH. The results indicated that students who were more integrated into higher education setting had high levels of self-determination, while students who had low levels of self-determination scored lower on the integration scale. In another study, Ayantoye and Luckner (2016) tried to identify factors that contribute to the success of minority secondary students who are DHH in inclusive settings. The study sample consisted of minority students who are DHH, parents, teachers, and interpreters. Researchers collected data through interviews, observations, and raw field notes. The results showed that students’ self-determination was one of the factors that contributed to their success in general education classes.

Students with disabilities enrolled in institutions of higher education believe that the acquisition of skills necessary for success as self-determination skills should start early, to help them achieve the desired outcomes of the services provided to facilitate the transition to post-secondary education (Getzel & Thoma, 2008). This is also confirmed by the results of Thoma and Getzel’s (2005) study, which investigated the importance of self-determination skills in the success of students with disabilities in higher education settings through interviews with 34 university minority students who had various disabilities, including deafness, and who had been selected because they had some self-determination skills. Students pointed to many key self-determination skills that they considered essential in transitioning to and succeeding in post-secondary education. These skills included goal-setting, problem-solving, self-management, and learning about oneself. Most importantly, most participants stressed the importance of learning self-determination skills early.

Despite the importance of acquiring and practicing self-determination skills for minority students with disabilities, it is one of the challenges that these students commonly face in transition (Garraway & Robinson, 2017). Minority students with disabilities may not have the adequate opportunities to develop their self-determination skills (Leake, & Black, 2005). In addition, the curricula and programs available to support these skills may not be commensurate with the cultures and values of these students (Leake, & Black, 2005). When working to build self-determination skills among minority students who are DHH, transition planning teams should take into account the different expectations of some cultures and develop options that are appropriate to the students’ cultures (Luft, 2016).

In a study conducted by Luckner and Stewart (2003) with a group of adult individuals who are DHH to obtain information regarding their success in various areas of life, including education, self-determination was one of the skills that participants perceived as important. They often pointed to the importance of self-advocacy, which is one of the crucial elements of self-determination through which they could participate effectively in identifying different needs and meeting them. The importance of the development of self-advocacy skills among students with disabilities is due to their role in enabling those students to overcome the challenges they may face in the post-secondary transition, which may relate to the change in the pattern of providing accommodation and services between secondary and post-secondary institutions (Leake & Cholymay, 2004). Possessing self-advocacy skills enables students who are DHH in post-secondary education to identify the support they need, as well as to effectively communicate information about their needs to those concerned (Luckner & Sebald, 2013). Despite the positive role of self-advocacy skills in post-secondary outcomes, students who are DHH may not have the self-advocacy skills necessary to deal with post-secondary conditions (Schoffstall, Cawthon, Tarantolo-Leppo, & Wendel, 2015). This may be due to a lack of adequate opportunities and programs to develop these skills among students who are DHH (Schoffstall et al, 2015).

For minority students with disabilities, it may be difficult to advocate for themselves in post-secondary settings. Culture-related factors may make self-advocacy a challenge for these students (Leake & Black, 2005). Such challenge may be related to a lack of trust and experience in dealing with others, which leads these students to refrain from disclosing their difficulties and from seeking help (Leake & Cholymay, 2004).

Therefore, these students should be supported in developing self-advocacy skills during secondary school (Johnson et al, 2002). According to Cote, Jones, Sparks, and Aldridge (2012), the self-advocacy skills of minority students with disabilities can be developed by enabling them to self-direct their IEPs. Through this, the students will be the leaders of their transitional planning, keeping it in line with their cultures and the preferences of their families.In fact, inviting students with disabilities to attend their IEP meetings and supporting them in participating actively in making decisions and setting goals that suit their needs and preferences is mandated by IDEA (Hengen & Weaver, 2018; Sands & Wehmeyer, 1996).Nonetheless, there is still a need to improve transition outcomes for minority students with disabilities by supporting skills related to transition planning (Thoma et al., 2016). The importance of developing these skills among minority students with disabilities, including those who are DHH, is due to the challenges that these students and their families may face during transition planning.    

One of these challenges was demonstrated by the results of the Trainor et al.’s (2019) study, which examined the experience of English language learners with disabilities with transitional planning. The researchers relied on the NLTS2 sample that included students from various disability groups, including students who are DHH, and from different racial/ethnic backgrounds. The results showed that minority students with disabilities and their families were less involved in transitional planning. Goals related to transition components were usually set by the school staff with little participation from minority students and their families, which was not the case for non-minority students with disabilities and their families. Therefore, it is important to note that transitional planning alone does not guarantee the successful transition of students with disabilities to higher education (Belch, 2004). These students may leave high school with transitional plans that do not take into account the needs and interests of these students, which may lead to their failure to join higher education or achieve success in it (Brand et al., 2013).

Overcoming Transition Challenges Encountered by Minority Students Who are DHH

There are many effective practices for overcoming transition challenges that minority students who are DHH may encounter. In order to overcome the academic challenges facing such students, Torres (2019) suggested that secondary schools prepare these students to meet the requirements of higher education institutions by providing them with challenging academic courses, in addition to providing them with the information they need to succeed in college, such as that related to planning, applying to college, financial assistance, as well as entrance exams. Since many students who are DHH graduate from high school without achieving the required level to meet the requirements of postsecondary education, which may be due to the lack of opportunities to attend advanced courses at the college level, higher education institutions can respond to these students’ needs by offering programs that provide them the required support (National Deaf Center on Postsecondary Outcomes, 2019). Institutions of higher education can offer many programs for minority students who are DHH in their first year; such programs may include mentoring, tutoring, academic advising programs, and those relating to some cultural organizations (Torres, 2019). As a result of Torres’s (2019) study, Latino students who are deaf who had achieved success in college indicated that such programs were useful to them.

Furthermore, the challenges that minority families face in order to be effectively involved in the transition planning for their children are another factor that may affect the successful transition of minority students with disabilities (Geenen et al., 2005; Povenmire-Kirk et al., 2010; Trainor et al., 2019). However, many practices may increase such families’ active participation in the transition planning for their children, including those who are DHH. Given the diversity of minority students with disabilities and their families, transitional planning should take into account the cultural assumptions of these students and their families through the use of culturally competent strategies to determine transition goals commensurate with the orientations of these students and their families (Leake, & Black, 2005). The person–family interdependent approach is one of the ways in which the transition for minority students with disabilities can be planned in a manner that emphasizes family empowerment (Achola & Greene, 2016). This approach takes into account the relationship between family life and the future lives of students with disabilities; in this approach, professionals should make sure that the transition goals are in line with family’s cultural expectations as well as identify transition activities in line with family needs (Achola & Greene, 2016).

In the same context, self-determination skills should be developed, taking into account the preferences of minority students and their families during transition planning, which should be determined based on their culture. Different cultures have different expectations to consider when working with minority students who are DHH and their families to develop these students’ self-determination skills (Luft, 2016). However, without a culturally sensitive curriculum to develop self-determination and self-advocacy skills among minority students with disabilities, these skills can be developed by adapting the available curricula to be culturally sensitive (Leake, & Black, 2005).

Finally, the challenges facing minority students who are DHH in their transition to postsecondary education might be overcome by using Universal Design for Transition (UDT). UDT is a framework proposed by Thoma, Bartholomew, and Scott (2009) based on implementation of the Universal Design for Learning principles to facilitate the postsecondary transitions of students with disabilities without hindrance (Scott & Bruno, 2018). Besides including the use of multiple means of representation, participation, and expression, the UDT framework extends to include multiple life domains, multiple means of assessment, self-determination, and multiple resources and perspectives (Thoma et al., 2009). The UDT framework has its role in creating a link between academic content and transition goals (Thoma et al., 2009). Despite the positive results achieved by some high school students with disabilities when the UDT framework was implemented, more studies are still needed to verify that the improvement achieved by students was the result of the implementation of UDT (Scott, 2011). In addition, UDT is still considered under development, so it may not be able to meet the needs of all students (Thoma et al., 2009). Further, the UDT framework may not include all transition strategies and practices that should be available to meet students’ different needs (Scott & Bruno, 2018).

Conclusion

Minority students who are DHH face many challenges when transitioning to post-secondary education, which may limit their success in post-secondary programs (Luft, 2016). Indeed, there are many factors that affect these students’ transitions, one of which is the low academic achievement of DHH students who are leaving secondary school in general and those from certain sub-groups in particular, such as those who are Hispanic or African American (Marschark et al., 2015). Further, another factor is related to the lack of active involvement of the parents of minority students with disabilities in the transition planning for their children, which is due to the many challenges that prevent them from participating effectively (Geenen et al., 2005; Povenmire-Kirk et al., 2010; Trainor et al., 2019). Non-academic factors have proved their importance in achieving post-secondary success (Morningstar & Shoemaker, 2018), especially those related to self-determination and self-advocacy (Ju et al., 2017). However, there are many practices for overcoming the transition challenges that minority students who are DHH may encounter. These practices include offering courses at an academic level appropriate for rigorous higher education courses as well as providing them with the necessary information and programs to successfully transition to postsecondary education (Torres, 2019). A way to activate the participation of the families of minority students who are DHH in the transition planning of their children is the adoption of the person–family interdependent approach. This approach allows for transition planning in accordance with the family’s cultural expectations and needs (Achola & Greene, 2016). Finally, practices related to self-determination and self-advocacy skills may include adapting existing curricula that support these skills and making them culturally sensitive to suit the needs of these students (Leake, & Black, 2005).

Implications and Future Research

There are many challenges facing minority students who are DHH that may, in turn, prevent them from successfully transitioning to post-secondary education. To overcome these challenges, current transitional practices that may prevent these students from achieving successful transition should be considered. In terms of their academic preparation, the level of courses offered to these students should be verified for their suitability to prepare them for post-secondary education. There is a critical need to identify current practices to develop these students’ non-academic skills, such as self-determination and self-advocacy, and the appropriateness of existing curricula and practices for these students’ cultures. Further, given the importance of the role of parents in the success of their children’s transition to post-secondary education, there is a need to facilitate and activate their role in the transitional planning of their children, taking into account the cultural diversity among these families. More research is needed to identify factors that may prevent the successful transition of students who are DHH in general and minority students in particular. Researchers should investigate the effectiveness of current practices in the transition planning of these students and consider ways to develop them to suit their unique needs. Such research may address the role of minority students who are DHH and their families in transitional planning during IEP meetings as well as the programs available to develop academic and non-academic skills and their role in supporting these students in achieving successful transitions.

Limitations

This review focused on the factors that affect the transition to postsecondary education for minority students who are DHH, with emphasis placed on common factors that frequently appeared in research. However, in most of the included studies, minority students who were DHH were not the main sample of the research but a small part of a large sample that included different categories of disability. In addition, all articles included in the current review were written in English. Some of the factors that may affect these students’ success were discussed in studies in which these topics were not the main focus. Further studies are therefore needed to discuss these factors in greater depth.

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Book Review: Who Moved My Cheese?

By Kiran Khan Paracha

Abstract

This is a book review that focuses on some of the primary themes running through one of the classic books on change titled Who Moved My Cheese by Spencer Johnson. The author has mentioned change in the context of business or employment but can also be seen in the context of other aspects of life. Book review also studies the book in the light of leadership and change theories mentioned in other popular books on the subject. However apart from the strengths, weaknesses are also highlighted to show that while it is a great book on the subject, its not perfect because regardless of how hard a writer tries, its impossible to capture every scenario and discuss an issue from every possible angle. Suffice it to say that this book is close enough to perfection even though it has its weaknesses.  It pays to read the book more than once to get a good idea of the underlying themes and messages which may not be apparent right away.

Change is usually the most predictable thing in life and business. It will happen when we allow it in our lives or not. Kids will grow up and you will be faced with an empty nest, partners will move on, businesses will have ups and downs and jobs will change. It is the ability to face change and accept it in a positive way that makes life so worth living. These are some of the themes we find in Spencer Johnson’s all time classic called “Who moved my Cheese “. In most courses on leadership, we come across the idea of change and how it causes conflict and resistance. The book deals with this idea. It explains why some people respond better to change than others and how some people do better by accepting change and flowing with it. Change may cause some people to freeze in their place, some to accept and quickly move with it and some to grief over the loss for some time and then make a move. The book upholds the beliefs that the sooner one lets go of the old, the faster they can find something new and possibly better. In all cases, change is inevitable but when it happens, those who smile and embrace it are the ones who are most likely to be successful at life, work and relationships.

“The quicker you let go of old cheese, the sooner you find new cheese.”

Several important themes run across the book such as adapting to change, getting out of the rut, moving on after massive change and coming out of the situation with a brave and positive spirit. The chapters are chockfull of information and practical advice, wisdom and metaphors, and strategies that can help a person put their situation in the right perspective and then resolve the problems arising in their lives because of change. Leadership is all about one’s ability to not only manage change but also help staff handle change effectively. This is why I found this book so helpful. This is not the first book on change, and it won’t be the last but it is definitely very effective in getting the message across using simple characterization and an interesting storyline.

If you are like me, you probably are done reading those books that come up with big complicated vocabulary and long winding sentences. I found the succinct style of this book very effective and made for a very easy read. Themes of the books can be gauged from some powerful quotes mentioned below:

Those who cannot move on but instead focus on injustice of it all tend to lose out in the end:

While Sniff and Scurry had quickly moved on, Hem and Haw continued to hem and haw. They ranted and raved at the injustice of it all. Haw started to get depressed. (pg 16)

The idea of New Cheese gets us there faster and gives us the courage to make it happen:

Then he thought about finding New Cheese and all the good things that came with it and gathered his courage. (pg. 21)

Things should be monitored closely and regularly to see when they are getting old and not working anymore.

Haw now realized that the change probably would not have taken him by surprise if he had been watching what was happening all along and if he had anticipated change. (p.25)

Some of the main themes could be gauged from what has been summarized above. Some key points of the book include the following which has been called the writing on the wall.

1. See change coming
2. Monitor change
3. Move fluently with change
4. Enjoy the process of change

Theories that we find in the book also correlate with theories found in some major leadership books including Michael Fullan’s Leading in a culture of change. Understanding the change process is clearly explained by Fullan when he says, “Re-culturing is the name of the game” which is the same idea presented by Johnson in a slightly different manner. We have to change ourselves and our culture to best adapt to change and to accept it.

Most leadership books accept that change is inevitable, and resistance is often seen. Johnson explains the reasons behind resistance which is what Fullan does too and some other theorists have mentioned as well.

The book is not perfect. By most standards, it is still a very good book on the subject of change. But no matter how hard a writer tries; it is not easy to come up with every possible scenario and give a strategy to handle that particular situation. The author like most other authors has focused on the most common issues and most common forms of resistance.

The author could have used Cheese as a metaphor for different kind of changes and not just changes in employment. It refers to changes in business mostly and life as well but kinds of give the impression that one must always chase CHEESE. What if someone feels that they have followed and chased enough and now they will find a way to cultivate their own cheese. There are numerous examples of people who have left employment to start their own businesses and the same with people who have left old relationships to live happily on their own. So that could have been done and I see it as a missed opportunity but then again, its hard to find a perfect book. But this one was pretty close.

References

Johnson, S. (1999). Who Moved My Cheese?: An Amazing Way to Deal with Change in Your Work and in Your Life. Random House.

Fullan, M. (2007). Leading in a culture of change. John Wiley & Sons.