September 2019 – Special Educator e-Journal

Table of Contents

• Special Education Legal Alert. By Perry A. Zirkel
• Buzz from the Hub
• Parent Advocacy in Special Education: A Review of the Literature.  By Arianna Barroso
• Parental Involvement and its Effect in Education.  By Lymairy Checo
• Relationships between Family and Children with Disabilities: A Review of the Literature.  By Stephanie Estrada
• Executive Functions and Students with Disabilities.  By Maria Frontela
• Stigmas Based on Mental Health Based on the Hispanic Community.  By Samantha M. Groover
• Parents Coping with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Literature Review.  By Marisol Lorenzo
• The Perceptions of Arab-American Parents of Children with Learning Disabilities.  By Abdulmajeed Alzahrani
• NASET Latest Job Postings
• Acknowledgements

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Special Education Legal Alert

By Perry A. Zirkel

© August 2019

This month’s update concerns issues that were subject to recent published federal court decisions and are of general significance: (a) exclusionary discipline of students with disabilities on the basis of school safety, and (b) attorneys’ fees for prevailing parents.  Both of these cases relate to other items available on my website perryzirkel.com.

In Rayna P. v. Campus Community School (2019), the federal district court in Delaware addressed the $375k fees request of the parents’ attorneys in the wake of two largely successful suits on behalf of two siblings with disabilities.  In both cases, the court significantly increased the hearing officer’s compensatory education awards (education special needs trusts of $170k and $209k), although upholding the denial of such relief for ESY.   Starting with the due process hearings, the case was multi-year litigation.  The defendant charter school admitted that the parents met the applicable standard for being a prevailing party but advanced several arguments to oppose the requested amount.
First, the defendant challenged the opposing counsel’s billing records as vague and lacking in specificity, citing various examples such as “review of materials regarding strategy.”	The court concluded: “I find the items listed in the Plaintiffs’ attorneys’ billing records sufficiently specific to allow me to determine whether the hours claimed are unreasonable for the work performed.
Second, the defendant claimed that the billing of 768 intra-office communications amounted to excessive and unnecessary charges in relation to the norm.	Drilling deeper, the court calculated that over the course of the two cases, the average amounted to 1.5 hrs. per week, which was for delegation to and supervision of junior attorneys, which effectively minimized the total costs.
Third, the defendant claimed, without specific support, that almost half of the work on each case duplicated the work on the other case, thus amounting to substantial double billing.	Finding that none of the plaintiffs’ attorneys billed twice for the same work and impressed that they built in a 5% discount for any inadvertent double-counting, the court rejected this third argument.
Fourth, the defendant argued that the hourly rates that the four attorneys charged was unreasonable in relation to the immediate region and the applicable skill and experience.	Concluding that special education litigation is specialized and complex and that the only one of the attorneys’ rates warranted reduction in relation to the region (from $395 to $350 per hr.), amounting to a $15k decrease in the total.
Fifth, the defendant asserted that the total fee should be reduced due to the plaintiffs’ loss with regard to ESY compensatory education.	The court disagreed, concluding that the attorneys obtained “excellent results” and “nearly complete relief,” only losing on a minor, nonfrivolous claim.
Finally, the defendant argued for reduction because (a) parents’ counsel had a contract for one third of any monetary relief and (b) the charter school’s limited funds were for education services.	Citing precedent, the court ruled that both of these considerations were irrelevant to Congress’s criteria for providing attorneys fees to parents who prevailed in IDEA litigation.
The bottom line was a limited reduction to an award of approximately $308k, which is likely to be met with boos among educators but is within the range of transaction costs, or part of the price, of litigation in special education.

In Olu-Cole v. E.L Haynes Public Charter School (2019), the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals addressed the discipline issues arising from a mainstreamed high school student with emotional disturbance (ED) who punched another student repeatedly in the head at school, causing a concussion.  After determining that this conduct was a manifestation of the student’s ED, the school placed him in an isolated interim alternate educational setting (IAES) for the maximum of 45 school days.  Near the end of this period, the school filed for a due process hearing, seeking an extension of the IAES and a change to a more restrictive IEP placement.  When his parent sought to return him to his mainstreamed placement upon expiration of the 45-day period, the school refused.  His parent immediate filed in federal court for a preliminary injunction for his readmission to his original placement based on stay-put, also requesting compensatory education.  Although agreeing with the merits of the parent’s claim, the court denied her motion based on the lack of irreparable harm and “the significant potential injury to other [students].”  The parent immediately filed an appeal.  Two days later, the school readmitted the student, and the hearing officer dismissed the district’s complaint.
As a threshold matter, the school argued that the appeal was moot due to his readmission to school within a few days of the expiration of the IAES period and the dismissal of its due process hearing request.  In an officially published decision, the appellate court rejected the school’s mootness claim, concluding that the wrongful denial of stay-put delayed the student’s return to school and his entitlement to compensatory education “remains live.”	The compensatory education claim in this case includes not only the delayed school days of readmission but also potentially (1) the basis for the IAES in the first place (because the concussion would not appear to constitute the requisite “serious bodily injury” for a unilateral IAES, and the alternative of substantial likelihood of injury to others would have required a due process hearing determination) and (2) the appropriateness of the isolated IAES.  Moreover, the D.C. Circuit uses the qualitative approach for compensatory education, which could exceed the period of the denial of FAPE.
The school also argued that safety supported the trial court’s decision to deny the preliminary injunction.  The appellate court agreed only in limited part, concluding that the trial court improperly shifted the burden of proof to the parent and that the school had a “heavy burden ‘by a clear showing’” to overcome the IDEA presumption of stay-put.	The appellate court explained that the trial court’s public-interest determination of “potential” harm to others did not meet the requisite degree of certainty and gravity.  Moreover, the school’s intervening decision to readmit the student contradicted its position.  If the school had a justifiable basis for extending the IAES, it should have filed sooner for either an expedited hearing or a Honig injunction in court, which each use the substantial likelihood of injury to others (or to self) as the standard.
As a last resort, the school argued that stay-put did not apply in this case, because the hearing officer had not yet issued a decision.  The court easily rejected this claim, pointing to the express IDEA language that limits the IAES to its expiration or the hearing officer’s decision, “whichever occurs first.”	This final argument appears to be a hail Mary pass as one last-gasp attempt to score a victory.  It does, however, point out the difficulties of obtaining an impartial decision in these high-stakes discipline cases, because an “expedited hearing” under the IDEA regulations may take as much time as the maximum period of an IAES, which a district may be seeking to either effectuate or extend.
The bottom line to cases engaging in disciplinary changes in placement, including but not limited to IAESs, is to avoid knee-jerk reactions based on one-sided interests in school safety and, instead, either engage in professionally prophylactic alternatives in partnership with parents or be careful to comply fully with the complicated but compromise rules that Congress established in the IDEA (and that the Supremes did in Honig).

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Buzz from the Hub

All articles below can be accessed through the following links:

https://www.parentcenterhub.org/buzz-august2019-issue1/

https://www.parentcenterhub.org/buzz-july2019-issue2/

Off to a Good Start! Back to School Checklist
From Wrightslaw, this checklist includes action items organized by: things to do, smart IEPs, your child’s evaluation, and more. There are 2 columns for each item where parents can mark their own progress in preparing (“not yet” and “done”), as well as room for comments and notes.

What to Do the First Day, Week and Month Back to School When Your Kid Has an IEP
From the Mighty, for families.

Need to Share Info on Early Childhood Development in Other Languages?
It doesn’t matter what language you speak, the science of early childhood development—of brain architecture, serve and return, and toxic stress—is universal. The Center on the Developing Child offers a library of videos and materials translated into several languages, including Spanish, Portuguese, Mandarin, Urdu, Bulgarian, Arabic, and now (new!) Japanese.

Using Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) to Attend IEP Meetings
This August 2019 letter from the U.S. Department of Labor discusses the general legal principles of the FMLA, the specifics of the inquiry to which US Labor is responding (care of children with special health care needs), relevant precedents, and Labor’s opinion based on those facts. This is not a tool that fits all family circumstances, but it’s a very good approach to keep in mind.

Parent of Special Ed Student Spotlights Powerful Tool for Advocacy
When there’s conflict, non-compliance, or other school issues that need resolving, IDEA offers families and schools multiple ways to settle matters. Here’s one that’s not as well known or used as, say, the due process complaint: filing a complaint with the state. Delve into its advantages with this article. (At CPIR, you can then explore the details of filing the state complaint, or using one of IDEA’s other dispute resolution options.)

Immigrants’ Guide to Navigating American Health Care
Will immigrant families be part of your Center’s customers? This guide is a comprehensive and accessible overview of what immigrants need to know about American health care. It includes tips on insurance terms to know, how to find health insurance and doctors, needed vaccines, a section on understanding the fees, and the lingo doctors and health care companies use to describe the work they do.

7 Self-Care Tips for Nonprofit Professionals
Are you any good at self-care? Bet not. Yet when we run-run-run all the time, we run the risk of burning out, and that is not good for us, our clients, our families, our organizations, or the field. Maybe we should take better care of ourselves?

The Types Of Self-Care You Should Be Practicing
Self-care isn’t all about bubble baths and coffee dates, even though those are important, too. In order to really feel your best, you need a comprehensive overview of all the different facets of self-care. This article breaks those facets down.

30 Ways To Treat Yourself No Matter What
Often, it’s the little pleasures that get us through the everyday grind.

This Is What Self-Care Looks Like for Parents of Kids With Disabilities
As parents, most of us tend to put our children and family first, leaving little time and effort to invest in us. Yet, if we do not take care of us, who will? We are all unique, and self-care looks different for each one of us. Here’s how it looks for many parents. How does it look for you?

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Parent Advocacy in Special Education: A Review of the Literature

By Arianna Barroso

Parents of students with disabilities face many challenges when learning and understanding the needs of their students. One of the biggest challenges that most parents face is advocating for their child. Parents believe that advocacy leads to positive results in their child’s education. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) allows children with disabilities to receive a free and appropriate public education. IDEA requires parent involvement in any decisions made about the child’s education. Parents should be included through the process of identifying, referring, assessing, and providing special education services.

Many parents of students with disabilities have felt that the school, teachers, or administration have not provided the services that their child would benefit from. Some parents seek assistance from advocates to guide them in the process. Parental advocacy for students has been shown to make a difference in services the child receives. There have been four types of advocacy categories identified when referring to parents this includes intuitive, disability expert, strategist, and agents of systematic change. Many parents stated that they felt that schools negatively perceived them when they advocated for their child. Parents continue to advocate for appropriate services and education for their children.

How could we facilitate parental advocacy in the classroom? Teachers can listen to parents this will help them feel understood. Working together as a team, for the benefit of the child learning and growing is the ultimate goal. The common goal is always to do what is best for the students, and working together to advocate for the child will ultimately benefit the student. This literature review will discuss different elements that are part of self-advocacy for families of students with disabilities.

Preparing Special Education Teachers

Teachers take on many roles in the classroom, one of these important roles is parent communication. Working and including parents during the process of an Individualized Education Program (IEP) and throughout the year as the students work on goals is very important. Under the IDEA act, parents must be included in the decision making of their child’s education which could often be seen as difficult for teachers. Teachers often find themselves not prepared with strategies on how to effectively communicate with parents and include them in the process all while making sure that parents feel their thoughts are being taken into consideration.

When a child begins to attend school, parents first interactions are usually with their child’s teacher.  Strassfeld (2018) researched how to prepare pre-service Special Education teachers to facilitate parental involvement and advocacy in the classroom. The research states how many teachers who have completed Special Education preparation programs have received little course work on parental involvement in the classroom. A survey completed “found that the ability to communicate with parents and handle parent conflicts are major weakness areas”. (Strassfeld 2018) A Special Education teacher who cannot offer the proper resources and supports to the parent, in turn, cause for the parent to lose the opportunity to advocate for high- quality learning.

The research provides three recommendations on how to prepare pre-service Special Education teachers that are entering the classroom. This research was very significant because the more of a significant relationship the teacher can build with the parents, the more the students will benefit. If both the teacher and parents are knowledgeable advocates, the likelihood that the student’s educational placement, resources, and services are appropriate to benefit the child. The first recommendation that the researcher makes is to “Further Develop Stand-Alone Courses
or Course Sequences in Parent Involvement That Are Aligned With State Certification or Policy Initiatives”. (Strassfeld 2018) These courses that focus on parental involvement would allow teachers to see the diversity that they will find in the classroom. They can begin to understand the diverse cultures and how to meet the needs of the different student and parent populations in the classroom. Next, the courses can focus on teaching framework models that focus on parental involvement. By having the basis of knowledge prior to entering the classroom, teachers can then apply their textbook knowledge into the classroom. The teachers will be exposed to the six stages of parental involvement which include “parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision making, and collaborating with the community”. (Strassfeld 2018) Knowledge of these stages will allow the teachers to understand how to obtain buy-in from parents in the classroom. Finally, for the educators to understand IDEA and how to use and provide resources to the parents on services and programs available to them.

Next, the researcher suggests that the coursework incorporates field work with parent involvement opportunities. Surveys conducted in the research “suggest that pre-service teachers need to both interact and communicate with parents and families within fieldwork opportunities.” (Strassfeld 2018) Providing student teachers with these opportunities will mold experiences of the importance of communicating with parents, and assisting parents with advocacy. Early experience in building teacher-parent relationships will allow for students to access high-quality education and provide parents with more opportunities to advocate for appropriate services.

The research final suggestion was providing teachers with access to all the existing IDEA resources that they may use. Allowing pre-services teachers to see all the programs available for students, and the knowledge to best guide the parents of their classroom. By being aware of all the resources available, teachers can best guide parents to obtain programs and services necessary. Parents will continue to advocate for their child, but now with the knowledge, the teacher is providing to parents.

The Advocacy Process

Burke, Rios, and Lee (2018) discuss the advocacy process for parents, as well as advocates that are attained by parents for further help during the process. They discuss that there are four types of advocacy which include intuitive, strategist, disability expert, and agent of    systematic change. These categories of advocacy are identified in theory, but the research is unclear on whether or not parents agree or identify with a type of advocate. This research focused on nine dyads, nine parents of children with disabilities and nine advocates that the parents worked with.  The purpose of the research was to understand three questions that have very little known research. The three research questions are “How do advocates and families describe the advocacy process? How do advocates and families perceive the school’s response to advocacy? How do advocates and families perceive the effect of advocacy?” (Burke, Rios and Lee 2018)

The advocates that participated in the research had completed a program called “Volunteer Advocacy Program”, and then advocated for a parent of a child with a disability. These advocates had formal training, where they learned about special education policies, IEPS, evaluations, interventions, as well as other topics that are relevant to the advocacy process. This would allow the advocates to sit in formal meetings and provide support for families during their times of need. The first step of the interview process for the research were individual interviews with the advocate and the families. Then, the advocate and family members were interviewed again together. The dyadic interview allowed the researches to view how the advocate and family worked together via phone.

The results of the research yielded that parents had contacted an advocate when they did not agree with the teacher or school. The parents stated that this had been due to feeling concerned about their child’s progress and not feeling that their voice was being heard. Parents shared that they felt supported by the advocate due to communication over the phone, in-person meetings, and by always having their questions answered. The narrative between the dyads reported that the parents first contacted the advocates over the phone and email. Then, at the beginning of the advocacy progress, they began to have in-person meetings where the parents were able to get all their questions and concerns answered. Parents stated that they felt supported and empowered by the advocates. It allowed them to increase communication with the school, which included asking more questions during meetings.  A parent stated that having an advocated benefited her because “it is kind of emotional so having someone to actually speak up helps a whole lot.” (Burke, Rios and Lee 2018)

During the interviews, the dyads discussed how they believe that the school’s responded to parents having an advocate. According to Burke, Rios, and Lee (2018), “most participants reported that the school responded positively to the advocate”. But, others reported that the schools were confrontational in the IEP meetings. But, only a dyad reported that the schools were surprised and did not know how to react with the advocate being present in the meeting.

The results of parent advocacy, specifically in this case with an outside advocated led to “increased services, improved school experiences, improved student progress, and improved parent experiences.” (Burke, Rios and Lee 2018) The results of the advocacy seemed to be positive based on the research conducted.  The dyads reported the same advocacy progress, with positive results for the student and information on how schools responded to the advocates. This research is important for parents and educators to understand how important the advocacy process is. The students definitely benefited by receiving appropriate services and resources after their parents began to advocate. This research allows for all those involved in the process to understand the relationship between parent, advocate, and school. The information found in this research would be beneficial for all Special Education teachers to read and understand so that communication and advocacy from parents could be understood.

Diverse Approaches to Advocacy

 Trainor (2010) investigated “the types of capital resources parents perceived necessary” to participate in the Special Education process for their child. The study included focus groups and individual interviews conducted on parents. The goal of these interviews was to understand the three research questions, “What types of cultural and social capital do parents perceive to be necessary to advocate for their children? When advocating on behalf of all children with disabilities and their families, do parents employ additional or different capital resources? How do parents’ perceptions of their roles as advocates vary within and across groups based on race or ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and disability category of children served?” Trainor (2010)

There were 33 adults participated in the study, which represented 27 families and 36 students from the Midwest who received Special Education services. The disabilities of the children of the participants varied. There were five focus groups, the groups included people with similar ethnic background and experiences.  The questions focused on understanding the parents “perceptions about cultural and social capital” (Trainor, 2010), but were asked in an open- ended format with vague questions that would lead to answers that researchers could understand cultural and social capitals. After the focus group interviews were complete, there were individual interviews completed. The parent was allowed to invite adult family members that they felt could assist them in answering questions about their child. The questions that were asked in the individual interviews, were based on the responses given by the parent during the focus group interview.

The results showed that parents reacted in four approaches to advocacy, similar to the research completed by Burke, Rios, and Lee (2018) that stated this. The stages included as intuitive advocates, as disability experts, as strategists, and as agents for systemic change. Some of the parents responded that they used multiple of these approaches, and some used only one approach exclusively. The intuitive advocates use information “regarding the preferences, strengths, and needs of their children in the context of school” when having conversations with teachers. (Trainor, 2010) The parents reported that this approach had many unsuccessful attempts when used to advocate for their child.  Most of the parents who used this approach were found to qualify for free or reduced lunch and were in a lower socio-economic status. Parents who advocated as disability experts stated that, they gained information on their rights and child’s disability from organizations and research outside of the school system. There was a variety of parents who used this approach, with different ethnic and racial backgrounds as well as a variety of socio-economic backgrounds. There was a large group of parents of children with Autism that reported using this approach. The parents shared that the use of this approach was limited due to not wanting to be judged by educators on information that they shared.

Parents who advocated as strategist did not qualify for free and reduced lunch, and rather used their knowledge of “their understanding of special education documents, procedures, and parental rights to engage in advocacy”. (Trainor, 2010) The parents stated that although their approach influenced their ability to successfully advocate for their child. But, they stated that they felt the times they were not successful was due to change needed to be completed in the school system as a whole.  Parent advocated who were the change agents, were ineligible for free and reduced lunch. They advocated not only for their child but also for changes in the system. They used their further understanding of the Special Education process and social networking. The need for economic resources was discussed in this group of advocates, in order to make a change.

This research is significant for educators and parents to understand the change that the different advocates have made. It also allows educators to understand parent’s goals with their advocacy and how to understand their approach. Furthermore, research on parental advocacy and the changes it made for students and the school system will facilitate the process for other parents. Furthermore, it provides an insight to teachers on the differentiation of advocacy based on the parent’s socioeconomic status. But, ultimately all parents and advocates are trying to make sure that their child is receiving the appropriate education and services.

Social-Communication Disorders and Parental Advocacy

Burke et al. (2018) aimed to understand how parents of children with social-communication disorders would advocate for necessary supports and how the advocacy affected the child’s education. As well as, how the schools’ reacted towards the parent’s advocacy for their child. Similar to the research conducted by Burke, Rios, and Lee (2018) and Trainor (2010), parental advocacy is categorized into four types of advocates. These are the intuitive advocate, the disability expert, the strategist and the agents of systematic change. The focus of this research was on those students affected by social-communication disorders because it affects the way a child functions. There is a large number of children affected by social-communication disorders, which has increased advocacy for appropriate services.

The researchers aimed to understand “the perspectives of parents and school professionals regarding how parents advocate for social-communication supports, the types of social-communication supports advocated for, the perceived effect of such advocacy, and the perception of parent advocacy from the school.” (Burke et al. , 2018) The study was conducted with 47 participants and 6 focus groups, 3 consisted of parents of children with social-communication disorders and the other 3 of professionals who worked with children affected by social-communication disorders.

The research consisted of two forms of data, the first was an information sheet that was completed by the participants.  On the information sheet, the participants answered questions about their race, gender, age, and educational backgrounds. The focus groups also participated in a “semi-structured focus group protocol”. (Burke et al. , 2018)

The protocols for the parents and professionals asked the same questions, using different formatting based on what is appropriate for the group. The questions were open-ended, which allowed for the responses to lead the discussions in the group. For example, parents and professionals discuss how the parents of student’s advocate for social-communication supports. These discussions lasted about an hour and a half to two hours per focus group.

Burke et al. (2018) results showed a consensus in opinion on the advocacy strategies used by parents. Both the professionals and parents stated that parents often advocated using “bringing in supports or materials, making requests, communicating with the school, and acquiring and sharing knowledge.” (Burke et al., 2018) Parents and professionals shared how in many circumstances parents have referred to bringing professional special education advocates to help obtain what they need for their child. Furthermore, both focus groups discussed parents requesting their child’s progress and growth from teachers. Parents also described that they would share any knowledge they acquired with the professionals they were working within the schools.

The research conducted led to information that would help many special education teachers, it would allow them to understand parent advocacy and the strategies being used. It will also allow teachers to understand that “the quality of parent-teacher relationship affected parent advocacy (Burke et al., 2018) Parents reported that when they were able to advocate with their child and work with the teachers, they did not find the need to obtain an advocate. Overall, it is important to understand how the advocacy for students with social-communication disorder makes a difference in the child’s skills to function.

Self-Advocacy

Self-Advocacy has been described as an essential component that has been associated with the success of individuals with disabilities. According to research conducted by Wood, Brewer, and Eddy (2005) self-advocacy as “knowledge of self, knowledge of rights, communication, and leadership.” When a student with disability self-advocates they are able to ask for services, accommodations, or any needs for themselves. While research has previously discussed the importance of parental advocacy in a child’s education. This study focuses on identifying practices that are now being used to promote self-advocacy.

Roberts, Ju and Zhang (2016) focused their study on 18 articles that promoted self-advocacy skills, dependent variables that included at least one of the four components previously discussed as taking part in self-advocacy. The studies included a total of 960 students that received interventions for self-advocacy, the students varied from elementary to high          school-aged children, as well as, two studies not including age information. Four of the studies being reviewed were “single-case, group experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational, qualitative, and mixed- methods designs”, “four studies used a single-case design with multiple probes across participants” and “seven investigations employed a group experimental design with a pre and post-intervention evaluation.” (Roberts, Ju and Zhang 2016)

The dependent variables in the study consisted of self-determination, student gains in transitioning their knowledge, the outcomes of transitions and self-efficacy. Students paticipate in the IEP process, as well identifying the purpose of the IEP. According to Roberts, Ju and Zhang (2016) self-advocacy skills were effectively taught with “published curricula, peer tutoring, writing strategies, employment skills training, transition planning involvement, direct instruction, college-based transition programs, a weeklong program, and supporting students to lead their IEP meetings.”

Overall, the research discussed the importance of self-advocacy for the success of individuals with disabilities. When students are able to understand what they need to succeed, their success rate increases. Although, parent advocacy also helped students receive appropriate services and educational needs. As students begin to get older, the need for understanding what services would best suit them and what is necessary for their success. Research on parent advocacy is important for educators and families alike to understand. The common goal is for the success of the child, educators, and parents building a stronger relationship allows for the facilitation of advocacy. Advocacy is an essential component for the success of an individual with disabilities.

References

 Burke, M. M., Meadan-Kaplansky, H., Patton, K. A., Pearson, J. N., Cummings, K. P., & Lee, C. eun. (2018). Advocacy for Children with Social-Communication Needs: Perspectives From Parents and School Professionals. The Journal of Special Education, 51(4), 191 200. doi.org/10.1177/0022466917716898

Burke, M. M., Rios, K., & Lee, C. eun. (2018). Exploring the Special Education Advocacy Process According to Families and Advocates. The Journal of Special Education. doi.org/10.1177/0022466918810204

Roberts, E. L., Ju, S., & Zhang, D. (2016). Review of Practices That Promote Self-Advocacy for Students With Disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 26(4), 209–220.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1044207314540213

  Strassfeld, N. M. (2018). Preparing Pre-Service Special Education Teachers to Facilitate Parent Involvement, Knowledge, and Advocacy: Considerations for Curriculum. Teacher Education and Special Education. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406418806643

Test, D. W., Fowler, C. H., Wood, W. M., Brewer, D. M., & Eddy, S. (2005). A Conceptual Framework of Self-Advocacy for Students with Disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 26(1), 43-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/07419325050260010601

  Trainor, A. A. (2010). Diverse Approaches to Parent Advocacy During Special Education Home—School Interactions: Identification and Use of Cultural and Social Capital. Remedial and Special Education, 31(1), 34–47.           doi.org/10.1177/0741932508324401

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Relationships between Family and Children with Disabilities: A Review of the Literature

By Stephanie Estrada

 

Parenting reflects greatly on the influence of a child’s academic and nonacademic success. A wide range of developmental factors may be affected, including brain development, socioemotional, motor, cognitive, and behavioral development, psychopathology, school adjustment, and later delinquency (Belsky & Haan, 2011).

Children, regardless of lack or presence of a disability, have caretakers that they refer to as parental figures. Based on the behavior of a specific child, the parenting style, or manner of disciplinary action, may vary. While cultural implications, as well as customary practices, may play a role in the methods that adults choose to reprimand their child. As much, it is evident that children with disabilities may exert behaviors that are not common, or otherwise distinct to their disability, and so approaches may alter even more severely in this case.

While parents with children of intellectual disabilities (ID) use disciplinary means less frequently, many report a more negative relationship with their offspring (Totsika, 2014). This notable data may suggest that while reprimanding is infrequent, the action of how it is being executed may more severely affect the child, or however it is done may be more detrimental to the health of the individual.

The further review of literature sought to comprehend the extent of impact discipline has on children with disabilities and how the style in which it is approached by parents therefore influences the mindset and reaction of the child.

Parental Influence

Studies of the parental effect on minors has long been observed. In a study, Belsky and Haan (2011) examined how maltreatment, whether physical, emotional, or sexual, as well as extreme neglect and deprivation all impact the nurturing development of the brain. Unclarity stands where Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) comes into play, as it is uncertain whether this disorder is the cause or consequence of brain measurements.

Though minimal research has been conducted in the past, it has entailed use of electroencephalographic (EEG) and event-related potential (ERP) approaches, though other brain imaging modalities have also been utilized in few others. EEG coherence measures the degree of synchronism between neural activity recorded at two electrodes across a selected portion of the EEG frequency (Belsky & Haan, 2011). This type of work has shown that increased levels of EEG abnormalities are especially present in children with a history of abuse, or maltreatment. 

Accompanying these scientific explorations, MRI studies have also measured long term relationships between parenting experience and later emotional processing in children.

Specifically, a previous study conducted by Taylor and Eisenberger in 2006 investigated the quality of family life in childhood; adults’ brain responses to facial emotions were gauged by comparing those who grew up in risky families as opposed to those who did not. Adults who grew up in more loving, non-risky environments showed amygdala activation seeing fearful or angry facial expressions.

Contrarily, adults who grew up in riskier scenarios showed little to no activation of amygdala, therefore deeming them less reactive to negative emotions due to previous and repetitive exposure to it. Researchers concluded that harsh parenting may very well affect the processing of threat stimuli, which explains the “tuning out” or lack of response to stimuli, in addition to an atypical activation when forced to encounter them.

Evidently, as this study goes on to elaborate, it is expected that while abuse and maltreatment may negatively impact the brain of a child, any other behavior may also have an impact on the nourishment of their mind, wellbeing, and general growth.

Relationship Quality

Parental behaviors are clinically seen as fundamental to a child due to their ability to allow for modification in mood, as such, most intervention programs for children as encouraged to start early enough to intercept negative behavioral outcomes. Totsika (2014) examined varying parental behaviors in a study, noting that less discipline took place between parents of children with ID, though their relationships were more likely to suffer. This specific observation aimed to understand how parenting behaviors associated with emerging behavior problems in children within their first five years of life.

Through the use of a computer-based interview, three scales of the British Albany Scales were administered. The scale helped assess the cognitive functioning of children selected from the UK, including individuals from all walks of life, including ethnic minority and disadvantaged areas. Data collection took place when children were three months old, 3 years old, and 5 years old. The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire was used to assess children’s behavior as a parent-report measure and includes 25 items that gauge emotional symptoms, conduct problems, hyperactivity, peer relationship problems, and prosocial behavior.

The scales included naming vocabulary, pictorial similarities, and pattern construction. Among the selected group of children for this study, discipline and home atmosphere were ruled out as predictors for negative behaviors in life, while relationship quality was deemed the main factor for how a child will function behaviorally later in life. The increase of parent and child conflict resulted in greater concurrent and eventual behavioral problems.

Results indicated that parents of children with ID perceived their relationship consisted of more conflict and less closeness between both parties than that of parents with children who were not with an intellectual disability, whereas conflict size raised at age 3 significantly and again at age 5.

Similarly, the conflict between parents and children with disabilities is not the only factor that determines behavioral decisions in the child mind, as whether they have siblings in the house also plays a role. While not all parental relationships are made equal, oftentimes siblings act as additional support for individuals with or without disabilities. Floyd (2016) conducted a trial to document the level of closeness between siblings with intellectual disabilities.

Accordingly, children with strong sibling bonds may predict a smoother social adjustment in the school setting, especially for those with disabilities, enforcing that relationships greatly affect the mindset of a growing mind. The study at hand took places over the course of three years with an initial group of 171 families. The study was both cross-sectional and longitudinal, with a “focus sibling” without any present disabilities being identified living in the same home as their siblings. Participants averaged at 22.92 years old, but featured age ranges from 11 years old to 38 years old. Compared to the children with disabilities, 48 siblings happened to be older while 58 were younger, with the average difference in age being 3.74 years. Addressed ethnicities and races were varied, though Caucasian was the majority of the population at 80%, African Americans consisted of 9%, mixed race 5%, and no record of race indication clocking in at 6% of the study population.  Those with intellectual disabilities ranged from ages 14 to 33 years old, with 49 males and 57 females. At the initial start of the study, 71 had an intellectual disability of mild severity and 35 had a moderate level of intellectual disability severity. Additionally, 23 were diagnosed with Down Syndrome and eight participants had a seizure disorder. Closeness was measured via the 30-item Sibling Relationship Questionnaire, which was to be completed by the sibling without a disability regarding their relationship with their brother or sister.

Results alluded to effects of age and additional changes over time showing an increasing sense of closeness and a decrease in conflict. Cross-sectionally, closeness in the perceived siblings tended to be stronger when they served as caregivers and conflict lessened more so when they no longer co-resided.

As an individual with disabilities, the aspect of choice and control is heavily burdening regardless of age. As an adult, the relationship they may have shared with their family as a child may greatly impact the choices they make as an adult and how they involve their family in decision-making processes. Incorporating self-determination and finding one’s role in the community is part of this process, as well as the possibility of becoming a parent.

Persons with intellectual disabilities may be deemed ill-equipped for such a demanding role by outlookers, when they demonstrate low general cognitive ability and a significant deficit in adaptive behavior domains: conceptual, social and practical. Yet, over five decades of research has shown that intellectual disability itself is an unreliable predictor of parenting performance, as many parents with intellectual disability demonstrate highly adequate and efficient parenting skills. (Aunos, 2008). 

In 2008, Aunos and Feldman studied the link between maternal social support, psychological well-being, parenting style, quality of the home environment and their relation to child problem behaviors. For the purpose of the study, 32 mothers with disabilities were recruited with eldest children ranging from 2 to 13 years old at the time. Participants completed a demographic and social questionnaire, in addition to a health measure, parent stress index, and a child behavior checklist. The style of mothers’ parenting was assessed through using the Canadian National Longitudinal Study on Children and Youth parenting questionnaire.

In comparison to mothers without disabilities, these participants reported poorer mental and physical health in themselves. The target children involved in the study did not have significant behavior problems, but they happened to be more prevalent in the older children. Findings showed a significant correlation between parenting stress, parenting style and perceived child problem behaviors (Aunos, 2008).

In 2018, Curryer used interpretative phenomenological analysis of individual interviews of 8 Australian adults with ID to more in depth understand the meaning given to their experience of family roles and support received when involving choice and decision making. The three following themes were the central focus: centrality of family, experience of self-determination, and limitations of choice and control.

Individuals with ID identify family members as sometimes acting as barriers between self-determination, while family members identified the main barriers of self-determination being the characteristics of the individual with ID (Curryer, 2018). These unique perceptions show that there may be a misunderstanding between individuals with ID and their family members, which in turn may also build a strain in their relationship. The qualitative approach of interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) was selected to explore and better understand participants’ daily experiences. Requirements for participants included the fact that individuals with ID must be over 18 and give written and verbal consent to the study; participants with mild to severe bouts of mild to moderate ID. Each participants was personally interviewed twice in the location of said participants’ choice to encourage comfort and utmost authenticity.

Of all eight participants, findings showed that those who had high level of family involvement in daily activities also had involvement of family in life choices, mutual or family led decision making and limitations when it came to choice and control. In contrast, those with moderate levels of family involvement were shown to generally handle their own decision-making independently. Similarly, those with low level involvement from family made most to all decisions themselves and only sparingly involved family members in life decisions. Notably, those with high family involvement reported a positive relationship with their family members, who they either lived with or nearby to. While family proximity may play a part in choice and control for individuals with ID, this was not thoroughly studied here.

Conclusion

While the role of a family in that of an individual with disabilities is often muddled in the midst of the need to be one’s advocate, emotional support system, nurse, among many other positions that the traditional parent may not be familiar with, it is pivotal that family members foster a positive relationship with their children. Such a relationship can be encouraged through strategies geared towards openness, honesty, and acceptance in one with disabilities.

References

Aunos, M., Feldman, M., & Goupil, G. (2008). Mothering with intellectual disabilities: Relationship between social support, health and well-being, parenting and child behaviour outcomes. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 21(4), 320-330. doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1111/j.1468-3148.2008.00447.x

Bernadette Curryer, Roger J. Stancliffe, Angela Dew, and Michele Y. Wiese (2018) Choice and Control Within Family Relationships: The Lived Experience of Adults With Intellectual Disability. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: June 2018, Vol. 56, No. 3, pp. 188-201.

Frank J. Floyd, Catherine L. Costigan, and Shana S. Richardson (2016) Sibling Relationships in Adolescence and Early Adulthood With People Who Have Intellectual Disability. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: September 2016, Vol. 121, No. 5, pp. 383-397.

Belsky, J., & Haan, M.D. (2010). Annual Research Review: Parenting and children’s brain development: the end of the beginning. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines, 52 4, 409-28.

Vasiliki Totsika, Richard Patrick Hastings, Dimitrios Vagenas, and Eric Emerson (2014) Parenting and the Behavior Problems of Young Children With an Intellectual Disability: Concurrent and Longitudinal Relationships in a Population-Based Study. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: September 2014, Vol. 119, No. 5, pp. 422-435.

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Stigmas Based on Mental Health Based on the Hispanic Community

By Samantha M. Groover

 

Mental health seems to be a topic of conversation that rarely talked about even though it affects many people. According to the National Institute of Mental Health (2017), nearly one in five adults in the United States have some form mental illness. Mental illness is a very broad condition and it can be categorized into two categories: Any Mental Illness (AMI) and Serious Mental Illness (SMI). AMI can be defined as a mental, behavioral, or emotional disorder that can vary in severity. SMI is defined as a mental, behavioral, or emotional disorder resulting in serious interreferences in daily activities.

Mental Health can affect many people despite their age, gender, or race.  As time has progressed, more and more people have been diagnosed with having a disability.  In 2017, an estimated 46.6 million adults aged 18 or older (18.9 percent) had any mental illness (AMI) in the past year (Turner, 2017). Many have tried to help the individuals by raising awareness of the importance seeking help for mental help. Previous research suggests the lack of engagement stems from factors such as mistrust, disparities, and stigma (Fripp & Carlson, 2016).  Nevertheless, with all of their help, many feel as if it is not safe or not okay to seek help for mental health. Although the goal of many state-funded programs (e.g., mental health, substance abuse, outpatient, community rehabilitation) is to improve the quality of care for all individuals and counteract the presence of negatively publicized views of mental health, attempts to provide care to minorities are substandard (Fripp & Carlson, 2016).

Because physical health consequences of overweight and moderate obesity have recently been called into question, researchers have become increasingly interested in psychological indicators of quality of life and well-being (Ciciurkaite & Perry, 2018). The way a person looks can affect their mental health. Many individuals are susceptible lower self-esteem and might be bullied by others because of their appearance. Speci?cally, excess body weight has been linked to lower self-esteem, poor body image, eating disorders, depression and psychological distress (Ciciurkaite & Perry, 2018). Research suggests that in American culture, body fat is perceived to be associated with lack of personal control, gluttony, moral failure, laziness and stupidity (Ciciurkaite & Perry, 2018). These views on individuals how are overweight and/or obese can cause psychological stressors. For example, these stressors can be being labeled as being overweight, obese, or fat. Stigmatized labels may be leveraged to remove power, legitimacy, and social worth, and are differentially and more easily applied to individuals and social groups that are already disadvantaged (Ciciurkaite & Perry, 2018).

Mental Health Literacy

Health literacy is a term used in public health to explain an individual’s capacity to understand health related information (Lopez, Sanchez, Killian & Eghaneyan, 2018). It is important to know the meaning of the information you’re being provided with or being told. Many do not understand that it is the health care professionals’ job to understand their patients, so they are able to provide the information at the level that the individual will understand. Mental health literacy is similar to health literacy but refers specifically to mental health conditions and the belief systems that create stigma surrounding engagement in mental health treatment (Lopez, Sanchez, Killian & Eghaneyan, 2018). Healthcare professionals should explain the main points of the mental disorder, report any stigmas, and address the importance about seeking treatment. When professionals and patients are able to discuss the patient’s mental health literacy, they are better able to determine appropriate educational material and assess the effectiveness of the intervention.

Education has been shown to have an effect of individual’s health literacy. Lower levels of education have been associated with less use of outpatient care and more psychological distress for men and women, while higher levels of education have been linked to better health, health literacy, and greater knowledge of mental health (Lopez, Sanchez, Killian & Eghaneyan, 2018). Results from the study conducted by Lopez, Sanchez, Killian & Eghaneyan, (2018) significantly show that participants with at least some college education reported greater depression knowledge and less stigma surrounding depression and medication than participants with lower educational levels. 

 

Mental Health and Hispanics

Depression is a leading cause of disability in the United States and Hispanics account for 5.8% of the population with major depression (Lopez, Sanchez, Killian & Eghaneyan, 2018). Hispanic-Americans experience many cultural and language barriers as they assimilate to living in a new country. This may affect their access to mental and health care. Research regarding the prevalence of psychological disorders among Latinos suggests that they experience psychological problems at similar or slightly lower rates compared to European Americans (Mendoza, Masuda, Swartout, 2015). According Lopez, Sanchez, Killian, & Eghaneyan (2018), U.S.-born Hispanics are more likely to have depression compared to Hispanics born in Latin America and are less likely to follow a treatment plan compared to non-Hispanic whites. Furthermore, 1 in 10 Hispanic women in the United States have been diagnosed with a major depressive disorder with the last year (Lopez, Sanchez, Killian & Eghaneyan, 2018). Treatment choices vary across ethnic groups; Hispanics are more likely to prefer psychotherapy (46.4%) compared to pharmaceutical therapy (31.6%) and are also more likely to believe that depression medication is addictive than non-Hispanic whites (Lopez, Sanchez, Killian & Eghaneyan, 2018).

 

Parental Influence

Children are unable to receive treatment on their own, so they depend on their parents. Parental influence in their children’s mental health treatment can hinder or help the child greatly. There are many theoretical models that suggest one of the paths parents can take to help their child with mental health treatment. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) is one pathway for parents to take to help their children. According to the TPB, the best predictor of an individual performing a behavior is their intention to do so, and a person’s intention to perform a behavior is a function of their attitudes, society’s norms, and their perceptions about the ease or difficulty of performing a behavior (Turner, Jensen-Doss & Heffer, 2015).

Parental stigmas on mental health may be one of the most influential reasons why individuals avoid mental health treatment. Findings indicated that parental discipline efficacy (i.e., parents’ difficulty in disciplining their children) and positive attitudes toward mental health services significantly correlated with increased attendance at an initial intake appointment (Turner, Jensen-Doss & Heffer, 2015). According to Turner, Jensen-Doss & Heffere (2015), mental health stigma, another important barrier to seeking services, is defined as the extent to which individuals are concerned about how they or others negatively perceive those who seek mental health services.

According to the data from the study conducted by Turner, Jensen-Doss & Heffer, 2015, there is a relationship between ethnicity and help-seeking intentions. They reported that the interaction between stigma, help-seeking intentions, and stigma for Hispanic-Americans to seek help were significant. The data also showed that help-seeking attitudes were not a helpful predictor within ethnic minority groups.

References

Ciciurkaite, G., & Perry, B. L. (2018). Body weight, perceived weight stigma and mental health among women at the intersection of race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status: insights from the modified labelling approach. Sociology of Health & Illness, (1), 18. https://doi org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1111/1467-9566.12619

Fripp, J., & Carlson, R. G. . (2017). Exploring the Influence of Attitude and Stigma of Participation of African American and Latino Populations in Mental Health Services. Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development, 45(2), 80–94. https://doi org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1002/jmcd.12066

Lopez, V., Sanchez, K., Killian, M. O., & Eghaneyan, B. H. (2018). Depression screening and education: an examination of mental health literacy and stigma in a sample of Hispanic women. BMC Public Health, (1). https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1186/s12889-018 5516-4

Mendoza, H., Masuda, A., & Swartout, K. M. (2015). Mental Health Stigma and Self Concealment as Predictors of Help-Seeking Attitudes among Latina/o College Students in the United States. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 37(3), 207 222. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.fiu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ1 70827&site=eds-live

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2018). Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2017 National Survey on Drug Use and Health

Turner, E. A., Jensen-Doss, A., & Heffer, R. W. (n.d.). Ethnicity as a Moderator of How Parents’ Attitudes and Perceived Stigma Influence Intentions to Seek Child Mental Health Services. CULTURAL DIVERSITY & ETHNIC MINORITY PSYCHOLOGY, 21(4), 613–618. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1037/cdp0000047

Turner, K. (2017). ‘I decided I wasn’t going to be a diagnosis’ – What does it mean to have a diagnosis of mental illness? The lived experience perspective. Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing,201-212. doi:10.1201/9781315381879-19

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Parents Coping with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Literature Review

By Marisol Lorenzo

Abstract

The purpose of this literature review is to evaluate the effectiveness of different evidence-based practices implemented by parents of children with autism spectrum disorder to cope with the stress of controlling problem behaviors such as aggression, tantrums, inattention, and other challenging situations like disruptive behaviors and lack of communication skills.  This literature review provides evidence that parental training, Coping Self?Efficacy, Compass for Hope, and mindfulness-based interventions contribute to improved quality of live and concept of satisfaction with life of families that have children on the spectrum. In addition, studies reviewed in this manuscript suggest that when parents develop their stress coping styles and increase their levels of tolerance, they are more capable of managing and controlling their child’s maladaptive behaviors. 

Keywords: autism, challenging behaviors, parent stress, parental training, coping strategies.

 

Parents Coping with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Literature Review

Raising a child with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) can be stressful and challenging for parents because it impacts the well-being of the family, regardless of the parents’ cultural values. Trying to manage and control behaviors like avoiding sounds, smells, and sights that overload children’s senses; running away; and having meltdowns may cause great stress in parents. Even striving to advocate for their children, discussing with special education teachers and therapists what practices would best work with the child, and obtaining the necessary supports from the public or private health sector can be overwhelming. Other difficulties faced by children with autism that parents struggle coping with are lack of communicating and social skills, restricted and repetitive routines or motor mannerisms, and self-stimulation movements (Kakkar and Srivastava, 2017). Furthermore, those behavior problems may worsen when caregivers implement harsh or punitive discipline strategies, thus increasing parents’ levels of despair and frustration (Shawler, and Sullivan, 2017).

Parents of children with ASD, especially mothers, express higher levels of depression and poorer quality of life than caregivers of non-disabled children (Byrne, Sarma, Hendler, and O’Connell, 2018). One contributing factor to the gender difference in stress levels may be how much mothers and fathers are involved in the caregiving activities (Ang, and Loh, 2019). Despite the differences, both parents experience feelings of loss, denial, and unknowing caused by the diagnosis that have an impact on present and future expectations. Mothers and fathers alike have expressed their need for external assistance from relatives, friends, or even professional agencies that offer emotional support and guidance on how to manage depression, as well as having time to themselves to recover emotionally and be able to meet their children’s needs (Pepperell, Paynter, and Gilmore, 2018).

Nevertheless, there are effective interventions and practices to help parents better cope with those challenging situations. One useful strategy is for parents to educate themselves about the effects of autism, learn about antecedents that serve as triggers for challenging behavior, implement effective responses, and adjust expectations for the child’s development (Byrne, Sarma, Hendler, and O’Connell, 2018). According to Shepherd, Landon, Taylor, and Goedeke (2018), the concept of satisfaction with life (SWL) allows the family to establish the priorities of their lives and acknowledge both the additional responsibilities and the rewards of caregiving children with autism. The concept of SWL suggests that enjoying the responsibility of raising a child with ASD through explicit societal, community, and familial recognition will produce more positive outcomes (Shepherd, Landon, Taylor, and Goedeke, 2018). Other strategies suggested to parents are ignoring problem behaviors that are not seriously disruptive, avoiding some difficult social situations, being organized and sticking to a routine, and utilizing an applied behavior analysis (ABA) technique to manage their child’s behavior (Glazzard, and Overall, 2012).

Parental Training

The purpose of a study conducted by Iida, Wada, Yamashita, Aoyama, Hirai, and Narumoto (2018) was to evaluate the feasibility of parental training (PT) on mental health and coping skills of mothers of children with developmental disorders. Participants were sixteen mothers of children with autism of ages between 4 and 11 years.  Mothers had an average age of 40 years, and they lived with a partner. In relation with education, only two had a university degree. All the mothers were the primary caregivers for their children. Regarding their occupation, one had a full-time employment, four had part-time jobs, and nine were homemakers. There was no information about the rest of the subjects. This program consisted of seven sessions of the Hizen Parenting Skills Training in Japan for mothers to acquire coping skills to manage their children’s problem behaviors. Each session included small group workshops as well as individual consultation on behavior therapy. All participants completed a psychological assessment before and after two months of training. Data obtained from pretreatment and post-treatment assessments were distributed normally and compared using the paired t-test. Pearson’s correlation analysis was utilized to analyze the changes between pretest and posttest score, demonstrating a statistically significant two-tailed P#0.05. As per results, the mothers’ positive appraisal, and escape/avoidance significantly increased with P,0.01 and P,0.01 respectively.  The depression and trait anxiety also decreased with scores of P,0.05 and P,0.01 respectively. Outcomes revealed that the parental training may be effective to increase the stress coping style to reduce the depression and trait anxiety of mothers of children with autism. According to Iida, Wada, Yamashita, Aoyama, Hirai, and Narumoto (2018), one limitation of this study was that without a control group, it was impossible to establish a correlation between pretest / posttest changes and PT effectiveness. Also, bias was threat to internal validity because all the dependent measurements were based on self-reports. The authors recommended to assess other family functions and increase the sample size for further studies.

Coping Self?Efficacy (CSE)

Haakonsen, Turbitt, Muschelli, Leonard, Lewis, Freedman, Muratori, Biesecker (2018) employed a randomized treatment-control design to investigate the effects on coping self-efficacy (CSE) of a coping effectiveness training (CET) among caregivers of children with autism. The twenty-two subjects were predominantly Caucasian, married, and highly educated. They were stratified by recruitment and randomized into the treatment or control groups. Recruitment was performed by members of autism support groups in Maryland, US, who distributed flyers in an institute for children with neurodevelopmental disorders.  A pre-questionnaire was used to evaluate some traits like caregiver-children relationship, child’s age, gender, and diagnosis, as well as parent’s marital status, education level, income, age, and racial/ethnic background. A post-questionnaire was used to determine the feasibility of the CET by asking questions such as how often the participant used the coping strategies after the intervention and if the sessions met their needs and expectations. Furthermore, the coping self-efficacy scale was utilized to evaluate caregivers perceived self-efficacy for coping with challenges and threats. Data were analyzed by means of content analysis and descriptive statistics, while signed-rank tests and rank-sum tests was employed to evaluate secondary outcome variables. Data from the treatment and control groups were compared using Nonparametric tests.  Coping self-efficacy of parents in the treatment group significantly increased from preintervention to post-intervention (p=0.02). Results indicated that caregivers could better cope with their children’s problematic behaviors after taking the coping effectiveness training, which led to less caregiver distress. The authors considered that recruitment at clinics and support groups were a limitation because participants were already enjoying certain resources; therefore, they were more receptive to the program. In addition, since subjects from the treatment group had higher household income, they might have responded differently because they benefited from having more resources. One recommendation from the authors for future implementation was to develop a phase II study in a larger cohort and implemented into a genetic counseling setting.

Compass for Hope

The primary purpose of a study competed by Kuravackel, Ruble, Reese, Ables, Rodgers, and Toland (2018) was to evaluate the feasibility of the Compass for Hope (C-HOPE) on decreasing problem child behavior, parent stress, and increasing parent competency.  The second research question was to determine if a telehealth delivery model of C-HOPE would help families from rural communities. The effects of C-HOPE on the variables of child problem behavior, parent competency, parent stress, group alliance and parent satisfaction were determined by using an iterative pretest–posttest control group design. The study took place over 18 months at two university sites and two rural sites. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three conditions after recruitment: ten completed the waitlist control, ten received the C-HOPE delivered via telehealth, and 13 received C-HOPE delivered face-to-face. Families were recruited by posting flyers at the two university sites, parent support group websites, and personnel associated with the Kentucky Autism Training Center. Although participants were both single and two-parent families, a 44 percent represented single-parent families. They had children with a mean age of 8 years. Regarding the first research question, outcomes yielded significant gains pre- and post-treatment in child problem behavior with scores from pretest to posttest of p < .001. There were also significant gains in parent outcomes with parent competency and parent stress scores of p = .02, and p < .001 respectively. Regarding the second research question, results yielded a large effect size of d = 0.99. One limitation of this research study was that part of the sample could not be randomized due to parent scheduling. Also, although the sample was homogeneous based on race and ethnicity, and parents came from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds, the results should be interpreted with caution due to the small sample size.

Mindfulness-Based Intervention

Rayan and Ahmad (2016) completed a study to examine the effectiveness of mindfulness-based intervention on perceived Quality of life (QOL) and positive stress reappraisal (PSR) among parents of children with autism. This study’s design was quasi-experimental, with a nonequivalent control group. Participants were recruited directly by telephone or letter from seven centers serving children with mild and moderate ASD, as well as other three centers serving children with severe autism in Jordan.   Fifty-two parents were assigned to either the intervention, or the control group. The first group included 15 fathers and 37 mothers, while the control group included 16 fathers and 36 mothers. Most participants were between 34 and 45 years old, married, and provided data about 81 boys and 23 girls with autism. Only 30 percent of subjects had a job, and around 61 percent did not have medical insurance. The in-person sessions had a length of 150 minutes and included psychoeducation about the difficulties experienced by the participants and the mindfulness benefits and five core skills, including observe, describe, participate, nonjudgmental acceptance, distancing from thoughts, staying present, and being effective. Parents also practiced mindfulness of breath following directions from a CD. In addition, they had homework assignments to practice the preferred, previously learned skills. Paired samples t-test scores suggested that the intervention group showed significant improvements with respect to the psychological health domain of QOL, social health domain of QOL, mindfulness, and positive stress reappraisal with medium to large effect size (P < 0.01). The parents in the control group showed improvement with small effect size. These results supported the feasibility of mindfulness-based intervention to improve quality of life in families of children with autism. However, the program did not have maintenance measurements after the fifth week of post-implementation, which did not produce data about quality of live improvements over time. Another limitation was the length of the program. Participants communicated their interest to participate in more sessions. A future implication suggested by the authors was to generalize this study to parents of children that did not attend autism centers. 

The purpose of a study completed by Lunsky, Hastings, Weiss, Palucka, Hutton, and White (2017) was to compare clinical outcomes for parents of adults with autism and developmental delay after receiving one of two parent focused interventions, mindfulness and Parent Informa­tion & Support. The 57 participants were recruited through the Developmental Services Ontario, center for adults with autism and developmental delay. Subjects were randomized in two groups of similar structure using a pseudo-randomization approach; 30 parents were in the mindful group, while 27 parents were in the Parent Informa­tion & Support group. The first research question was to determine if the mindfulness-based intervention reduced the levels of parent distress compared to the parent support and education group. The second research question focused on mindful parenting, self-compassion, empowerment, positive gain, and caregiver burden. The same baseline measures were completed three times during the study: prior to group assignment, at week eight, and three months after intervention implementation. Session content focused on experiential learning of meditation techniques and consisted of various activities like paper-based homework and CD recordings, web-based links, three-minute breathing space, connecting practices into current life events, sitting meditation, walking meditation, and gentle yoga. Parents could also reflect more generally about their situation and connect with others during a tea break. An ANCOVA was conducted to examine maintenance of the learned skills, which revealed a significant group effect [F (1, 38) = 10.24, p = .003]. There was also a small to moderate effect size advantage for family services for the support and information group. Outcomes indicated that difference at post-intervention was maintained until the last maintenance measures. Parents in the mindfulness group reported a significant decline in psychological distress. One limitation was that this study was a small trial and it did not detect moderate to small group differences with clinical meaning. Data analysis was another limitation because there were some missing data at post-intervention, and more missing data by the twentieth week measure. As per future applications, the authors recommend studies with higher initial recruitment and data analysis strategies dealing with missing data.  

The aim of a study by Jones, Gold, Totsika, Hastings, Jones, Griffiths, and Silverton (2018) was to carry out a pilot evaluation of a Mindfulness-Based Well-Being Course for Parents (MBW-P), with caregivers of children with autism and/or intellectual disability. Participants were recruited from different special schools. Twenty-one participants in total completed the study; nineteen were biological parents, while two were adoptive mothers.  Seventeen participants were married or living with a partner, and four were divorced, single or widowed. Their age average was 45 years old, and their ethnicity was White-British. Most were educated below university degree level and had a job.   Sixteen children had been diagnosed with autism, whereas one had Down syndrome, two had Cerebral Palsy, and two had intellectual disability. On average, all children participating in this study were 10 years old.  The eight-weeks mindfulness intervention consisted of two-hour sessions on a weekly basis including home practices with the goal of increasing families’ mindful awareness and sharing experiences and difficulties faced by diverse groups of parents.  The weekly five-to-twenty sessions included mindfulness practice, periods to reflect on the practices, orientation for the following week, and reflection from the previous week.  Paired-samples t-tests were used to compare pre and post-treatment scores, and effect sizes were calculated and analyzed using Cohen’s d. As per results, there were significant differences between pre- and post-intervention regarding general mindfulness, self-compassion, and general stress with scores of p = .008, p = .039, and p = .031 respectively. Participants reported an increase in mindfulness and self-compassion, a dropping in general stress, and less in anxiety and depression. However, parents did not report a decrease in child’s inappropriate behaviors.  Another limitation was lack of a comparison group, thus making it hard to determine if the results were due to the mindfulness intervention. Furthermore, participants’ completion rates of the Home Practice Record Sheet were very low either because they were not engaged with the sessions at home, or because they were unable to complete the record form.

The importance of coping with the stress generated by the challenges of raising a child with autism is evidenced throughout the literate review. Parents can manage and control their children’s problematic behaviors – such as aggression, tantrums, lack of communication skills, inattention, and disruptive behaviors – thus improving their quality of live and their concept of satisfaction with life by practicing different evidenced-base interventions. To illustrate, parental training helps increase the stress coping skills and mental health of mothers of children with autism and decrease their trait anxiety. Similarly, coping effectiveness training has positive effects on coping self-efficacy; with this practice, caregivers can better cope with their children’s problematic behaviors, which leads to less distress.  Furthermore, the face-to-face Compass for Hope as well as its telehealth delivery model help lessen problem child behavior, parent stress, and increase parent competency, group alliance and parent satisfaction.  Finally, the mindfulness-based intervention increases self-compassion, has positive effects on perceived quality of life, on psychological distress, and reduces anxiety and depression. All these practices help parents cope with the challenges of raising a child with an autism spectrum disorder.

References

Ang, K. Q. P., & Loh, P. R. (2019). Mental Health and Coping in Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in Singapore: An Examination of Gender Role in Caring. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 49(5), 2129–2145. doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1007/s10803-019-03900-w

Byrne, G., Sarma, K. M., Hendler, J., & O’Connell, A. (2018). On the Spectrum, off the Beaten Path. A Qualitative Study of Irish Parents’ Experiences of Raising a Child with Autism Spectrum Conditions. British Journal of Learning Disabilities, 46(3), 182–192. Retrieved from search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.fiu.edu/login.aspx? direct=true&db=eric&AN =EJ1190790&site=eds-live

Glazzard, J., & Overall, K. (2012). Living with autistic spectrum disorder: Parental experiences of raising a child with autistic spectrum disorder (ASD). Support for Learning, 27(1), 37-45. doi: dx.doi.org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1111/j.1467-9604.2011.01505.x

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The Perceptions of Arab-American Parents of Children with Learning Disabilities

By Abdulmajeed Alzahrani

Abstract

Cultural background and the impact that individuals carry with themselves are depicted through their responses toward almost everything in life. The data in relation with the culture of the minorities present in the USA currently is difficult to find, while the data related to Arab-Americans specifically is non-existent. The proportion of the Arab-American population in the USA and their contribution toward society will always imply which cultural lineage they belong to (Housey, 2015). Their life in the USA, assorted contributions in raising a family, and settling in the cross-cultural environment shows a mindset that is informed by cultural practices. The lack of studies present on Arab-Americans and their culture halts the process of gathering their perceptions regarding raising a child with learning disabilities in their family. 

Introduction

Due to a lack of data available for minority study, the research has been carried out. The statistics of minority students with learning disabilities do not include the necessary background of culture associated with them. As culture leaves a great impact on learning methods and the way a child grasps the knowledge of a child, learning institutions should understand the culture first. The research purpose is to create an understanding of such institutions so that they can assist in children from Arab family backgrounds overcome their learning disabilities in a shorter span and in much easier ways. To understand the culture and family perceptions of Arab-Americans who have a learning-disabled child in the home, this research will be helpful. This research will focus on the root causes and issues that might prevail while handling the terrible twos of child-facing learning disabilities.

The statistics surrounding the education of children affected by learning disabilities show an increasing trend. Approximately 5% of children in the United States are found to have learning disabilities (Cortiella, 2014). This prompted experts to analyze this matter deeply and acquire the stats for different age groups. The notion was to refrain from the severity and to nip such disabilities in the bud through necessary precautionary measures. The estimate for learning disabilities in 2014–2016 was 8 percent for children between the ages of 3–17, with 4 percent rated as mild and 4 percent rated as moderate or severe. Amongst these, statistics segregated children by race and ethnicity, which depicted 3% of children with learning disabilities (Fuchs, 2017). Experts and child advocates are of the view that the increased ratio is endemic because of the cut off on schools’ funding, their corresponding understaffing, and thus, higher pressure placed on schools by the federal government to leave no child performing any less than the average rest (Varenne, 2018). Different experts have given different opinions while learning how learning disabilities start to arise in a child’s personality.

Learning disabilities give way to various difficulties in the life of a growing child with a growing mind and increasing intriguing natures. These difficulties become a challenge for children who are students. They struggle through the minute activities in life that others can perform effortlessly. Thus, difficulties can signify that there is a problem occurring. Such disorders are usually recognized during school age when the parent consults the doctor to understand the reasons behind difficulty a child might be facing while learning in school. The disabilities differ from problems like weak eyesight, hearing ailments, or physical handicaps. These disabilities can affect learning in a different manner, and this should not be misunderstood as the learning disability (Meltzer, 2018). Learning disabilities are much different than other physical disabilities. It causes disturbances, specifically in learning and understanding. Such disabilities halt the process of learning through confusing the brain of the child in certain situations, like while learning the alphabet, constructing words, working with figures or numbers, recognizing sounds, and comprehending multiple instructions at once, etc. (Meltzer, 2018). These disabilities can be confused by assuming the child is not paying attention or is being careless. This results in the child becoming frustrated and affecting their self-esteem surrounding learning and proceeding to become successful in life.

It has been believed that students with learning disabilities have a higher intellect than that of an average student. This causes frustration in the students due to the natural potential that they have, but cannot be expressed due to the disability that they suffer from. Such students also attempt to compete with other students, and their disability does not let them achieve their goals; however, they believe and hold faith in their potential (Alfonso, 2018). This makes them gradually lose their confidence. Learning disabilities fall under different categories, such as auditory processing disorder (APD), dyscalculia, dysgraphia, dyslexia, language processing disorder, non-verbal learning disabilities, visual motor deficit, etc. A child might also struggle to make his/her place in a competitive world with no one understanding him/her clearly (Siegel, 2018).

In a report from National Center for Learning Disabilities, it has been reported that 10% of US students who suffer from learning disabilities from an early age are mistaken as lazy, inattentive, careless students who are understood as not able to learn (NCCMH, 2015). The report also states the percentage is divided into different ethnicities. It is reported that around 2% of the children with learning disabilities are from an Arab background (Seligman, 2017). According to the 2017 US Census report, the population of Arabs in the USA is around one and a half million, which comprises a total of 1% of the total US population. Out of this 1%, the parents who have children with disabilities make up 2% of the total number of children with learning disabilities. This statistic sheds light on the worthiness of this study (Seligman et al, 2017).

Arab natives share different cultures and norms, habits and attitudes, and practices and mindset. According to their relative different backgrounds and ethnicities, people behave accordingly in certain ways. The Arab culture is more of a family-oriented one. Their closeness, dependence, and interference forge a strong bond among families, most importantly in parent-child relationships. Thus, the impact of the culture defines the corresponding responses and evaluates the behavior of the people, as well. People who come from an Arab background, and reside in the US as immigrants face many challenges (El-Keshky, 2015). From settling into the culture to mingling and building affiliation for the country, the whole process remains arduous for people coming from different cultural backgrounds and ethnicities. As part of this struggle, some Arab families living in the US, as parents, face exigent situations regarding their children’s problems.

The most common and predictable barrier is communication. Family life while living in a country with a different culture becomes a trial if parents discover that their children are facing troubles adjusting, as well. The issue can be due to many reasons, like cultural incompatibility and incompetence. Both are things that can be signified by various other acts of a child (Al-Khateeb, 2015). Learning disabilities are a special matter that does not indicate any special sign. Due to which, a child may be misunderstood initially as a lazy and careless in his manners and attitude toward their studies. Arab parents will definitely treat their child in such situations according to their natural perception, generated through the life-long following of their native culture and mindset (Schechtman, 2017). There is no significant research found on this matter previously; however, the Arab population is growing in the US and making their place as citizens.

The lack of persisting data on different cultures, and specifically, the Arab-American culture, has caused a hindrance for therapists and psychologists of children with learning disabilities to reach to the root cause and suggest transformative remedies in these sensitive cases. Sadly, that means children from the Arab families fall into the same generalized category, and the problem remains unambiguous for the psychologists, as well as the parents (Drysdale, 2015). As discussed above, with the importance of culture and family enmeshment in building a child’s nature, it is here concluded that an understanding of cultural backgrounds plays a vital role in the handling of the matters related to children with learning disabilities. It opens up many reasons and chain clues that can strike at the core reason. Also, the guidance that should be provided to the parents of a child facing a learning disability, for how to further treat and help them flourish and grow out of this condition, can be structured in accordance with the perceptions they will have and the anticipated response they will give due to the cultural background they originate from.

Literature review

The document here focuses on Arab-Americans specifically, which has made it a particular subject of research. As there is no available data regarding this specific culture, when it comes to educating and bringing up Arab-American children, a good amount of literature is required about the specific ethnicity they originally belong to. It gets easier for teachers to teach after understanding the cultural background and tendencies of the student. Thus, the related theory of culture, parental practices, actions accustomed by the religious practices and beliefs, language barriers, and a child’s adjustment in a cross-cultural environment should be accessible to schools and psychologists so that they can assess the core issues and treat it accordingly.

This document will provide an ample amount of literature in this regard while considering the specific case of Arab-Americans and the challenges they face in a diverse environment, how they practice their cultural values, and how their religious beliefs are reflected in their actions. Actions that are induced by all the listed factors toward their children and their childrearing pattern in families will also be discussed to unravel the reasons behind the enormity of depiction of their culture and beliefs in their reaction toward children who may be facing the issue of learning disability. The important factors will focus on the necessity of having good literature provided to schools in this regard so that they can cope with situations where they must interact with a child from a different ethnicity. This document will provide an assistance in this regard, so that America, as a nation, can fight against the emerging issue of learning disabilities among its citizens coming from any kind of cultural background.

Arab-Americans

Family structure

According to Joseph (2018), Arab culture is found to be most diverse with a divergent nature in its all aspects, including the social class, their language dialects according to their places of origin, and cultural adaptation. As stated by Shams (2015), Arabs belong to twenty-two different countries, which are members of an Arab League. This area is referred to as the Arab world to the rest of the world. The countries that are included as part of the league include Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, Sudan, Libya, Egypt, Iraq, UAE, etc. The predominant religion is Islam, while just a small fraction is found practicing other religions like Christianity and Hinduism. It has been determined by Dallo (2018) that only 24% of Arabs who have immigrated to the USA are followers of Islam. 

Diversity in acculturation may exist, but the social practices and family norms are found common in Arab families from any origin (Ajrouch, 2018). Arab families are generally acculturated with a patriarchal family system. According to Assari (2017), the high post is assigned to the men of the family. Women are found to have diverse characteristics, and hold status within the home boundary, while the man’s realm is outside the home. Since women undertake household chores, they are responsible for rearing the children. The educational, spiritual, and societal development is supposed to be a woman’s domain while men take care of the chores outside the house and likewise, provide monetary support for the children and the family.

Arab families have a culture of respect, assigning a high status to the males and elders of the family first. The respect and status of the family are considered to be a very sensitive issue. Shame and disrespect can be associated with the smallest of the issues in the family (Khalaf, 2009). As stated by Cardenas (2017), sacrifices in the family are even made to supposedly save the reputation and status of the family in the cultural group. Else, the guilt is invoked on the person who is found practicing anything out of these confinements. Usually, disappointment is related to such individuals to invoke shame and regret. According to the research of Holmes-Eber (2018), Arab culture shows the essence of the collectivist approach in a family unlike western culture, which promotes independence and freedom of actions and speech as soon as the child reaches adult age.

To elucidate the culture of Arabs, it is important to discuss their relationships and the association with society (Al-Hamarneh, 2015). Arabs are far more social in their host society than people in the west. Their core values to mingle and to serve as a great host has developed a trait in them to stay connected to the people affiliated (Pallegrini, 2018). As determined by Cardenas (2017), Arabs are very good at extending relations as their cultural values teach them to stay family-oriented, so they learn from their homes how to respect relatives and create relationships that last a long time. In addition, their religion teaches them to be more empathetic toward anyone they see, through which they also form relationships (Ajrouch, 2018). The aspect of religion will be discussed in the next section.

Religion

As Shara stated (2016), the population of Arab-Americans in the USA is between 1.2-3.9 million. That tally count has increased due to war situations in their origin nations. This has also affected the adjustment of Arab families in the USA due to their traumatic migration. In addition, they face a language barrier along with the cultural differences in a society that is a cultural hub (Ajrouch, 2018). With their defined boundaries, it may cause difficulties for them to settle in a diverse ideological state and raise their children in that environment. Language constraints can also be an impediment, as is a religion because their religious beliefs are normally very strict. As stated by Wellhausen (2016), the religious beliefs and spirituality in the Arab culture are linked to all that a person does, from walking, talking, to clothing, everything has to be aligned with their religious injunctions. Thus, in western culture, Arabs will not bear their children to dress according to the society standards, but rather, according to religion, they are taught.

Almost everything in a religious Arab family is affected by the belief that all that happens, happens according to God’s will (Spiegel, 2015). As stated by Poliakov (2016), the qualms regarding having any physical disability also are affected by religious belief in that because it is according to God’s will, that it should not be treated. Their faith signifies that they hold the men in the family at a higher status, which is why the culture has misogynist aspects in it (James-Hawkins, 2017). According to the Muslim religion, which most Arabs practice, a man is allowed to have more than one marriage (Al-Krenawi, 2016). The polygamy practice indicates that they give men the authority to serve their families and undertake the responsibility of all the members, while in return, receive a higher status from the family. This cultural norm is thus influenced by their religious beliefs (Al-Krenawi, 2016).

When discussing Arab-Americans specifically, along with many more challenges that they may face like language barriers, acculturation, and bonding with people with other culture and other beliefs, they also face issues in obtaining “Haram-Halal” food as well in their daily routine due to their religious beliefs. As explained by Ali (2017), there are certain things and practices that are prohibited for Muslims, and they call it Haram, while things that are allowed are Halal for them. That is why Arabs living in a diverse culture face the difficulty of having food cooked outside their home, suspecting that it might be made with ingredients that are Haram for them. Along with that, they are always skeptical about their children hanging out with children of other culture, as well, as they believe that their children might take the significance of company and indulge in haram acts. How they rear their children in their society will be discussed in the next section (Kashim, 2018).

Children Rearing:

In the Arab culture, the elders of the family are more dominant, and their choices and preferences are taught to children so that they do not fall outside the category of a “good child” (Nydell, 2018). The child-rearing responsibility rests with the mother of the family, who are usually undereducated, as they do not enjoy all the same freedoms as men in their culture (Sinno, 2018). Thus, different methods of learning cannot be practiced. As stated by Aroian (2016), child development happens through kinesthetic learning. The parents rear their child following face-to-face tactile communication (Aroian, 2016). As the parents hold the most authority over their children, interdependence prevails in their culture. Due to this, children remain dependent on their parents for a longer span than children who are brought up in the west due to western culture supporting independence (Schechory-Bitton, 2015).

This can result in a lack of confidence in self and independent traits in children. As noticed by Acevedo (2015), a parenting style that is more autocratic can result in children lacking a sense of responsibility. The children are brought up in a way where they are not allowed to act outside their religious boundaries, and this confines the children to a very small community who share the same belief (Acevedo, 2015). Because of this children may think that outside the community, they will encounter bad influences and will stray from the “right” path as defined by their religion (Freund, 2018). Due to this, some children may feel alienated in learning centers full of diverse cultures and beliefs. The children have bound accordingly to their parents’ expectations (Freund, 2018). As Arab families are highly family-oriented, they take competition amongst their children very seriously. As established by Freund (2018), children are supposed to act according to the idea of a “good child,” which includes scoring better in their studies compared to the rest of the children of the family as parents take pride in comparing their child’s achievement with others in an Arab family.

To make their children more competitive and “perfect” according to their standards, Arab parents also indulge the male children of the family in physical activities to make them sturdy (McMillan, 2016). In Arab culture, the most practiced activity is swordplay, which is taught to children in early age, so that they can become physically active in their life (McMillan, 2016). Arab culture also encourages the teaching of skills like camel riding and horse riding (McMillan, 2016). From the early ages, they keep the male children of the family active and give them a sense of responsibility and superiority over the women of the family. This might create discrimination, and the girls in the family may feel less privileged. According to Beitin (2014), as male children of the family are taught from an early age that they hold a higher place than women, likewise, female children are taught to be more gullible toward this discrimination and are persuaded to accept it as a religious obligation (Beitin, 2014).

According to Dabbagh (2016), children in Arab families are also taught the family and social norms, as well. There is high respect for elders from any place, family, or religion. That is how children can be raised with high morals in society. According to Dabbagh (2016), the lack of independence does affect self-esteem when the children move out in a highly competitive world. They may face many challenges and situations where independent decision-making power is predominant. As Halperin states (2015), the only preferred occupations in Arab society is doctorate or engineering. They may force their children to choose these fields and pursue a career in them regardless of their caliber. This can exert a great deal of mental pressure on a child to live up to the expectations of parents (Helperin, 2015). This can also undermine the child’s real skills, and they may feel the need to sacrifice their interests to meet the will of their parents.

Conceptualization of disability

As stated by Hadidi (2015), in Arab families, everything is attributed to the will of God. Likewise, any kind of disability among their children is more likely to be understood as God’s plan rather than understanding it within a medical model. Talking specifically about learning disabilities, sometimes Arab parents fail to understand that any disability exists and call it misbehavior, carelessness, or interpret it as their child exhibiting a lower caliber (Hadidi, 2015). As described, the Arab culture is more family-oriented, and they engage in competition among the children of the family. There is a general conception found that Arab families, when encountering any issue of learning disability in a child, try blaming it on the “evil eye,” which is considered to be a jinx from envious people (Al-Zidjaly, 2016). They think that people who fall prey to the “evil eye” are most commonly children, pregnant women, and people with achievement, wealth, or anything that might provoke envy.

Some people also link disabilities to bad spirits that hunt for people who have committed sins. According to their religious beliefs, they even relate it to the black magic from people who would wish evil on the family (Al-Zidjaly, 2016). The stigma in Arab society is that the children who lack the aptitude and are “less competent” than others face disabilities, especially ones related to learning (Zaher, 2017). Thus, parents feel shame due to that, as the trend of comparison persists in Arab families. As the result of polygamy, mothers or first wives feel threatened if they bear a child with less caliber or any disability with the fear that they will be held accountable for not properly rearing their child, and their husbands can seek other wives (Zaher, 2017).

As a result, mothers may try to keep disabilities hidden and untreated. Children with learning disabilities are often untreated and grow as under-confident children, blaming themselves for the lack of achievement in their education (Grey, 2018). The contribution from school teachers and psychologists remain minimal, as well, as the parents’ help is often nonexistent (Grey, 2018). Additionally, the literature already lacks a cultural study of Arab families and the challenges and threats that they face while living in the USA. This also remains as a hindrance to the proper treatment of children with learning disabilities and their growth (Bengtsson, 2018). The lack of treatment for these disabilities can result in ruining children’s lives and careers. There is a proper medical and psychological educational system to fight this issue. However, due to the cultural issues in Arab families, the children remain untreated and are left behind in education causing trauma in the child’s life (Sher-Censor, 2017).

Due to the misconception and blame placed on the children, the children may feel unconfident throughout life when appearing among people. Due to this, a child may face more blame from the family that the child is being careless in all aspects of life and the core issue remains unnoticed and ancillary. As stated by Sher-Censor (2017), the children sometimes face difficulties due to language barriers, as the spoken mother language is different from the other major languages spoken in the USA. This can also become an impediment for children while in the process of learning and can cause issues of understanding and grasping knowledge easily.

Summary

While speaking broadly, it is an eternal truth that school psychologists in the USA lack knowledge of Arab culture, norms, and the effect of all this on children. That is why the resultant treatment may lack the tendency to treat issues like learning disabilities in children. The literature given above can be proven as fruitful in such situations as it explains the aspects of Arab families wholly and also explains how and under what circumstances these children are brought up. This can also be of assistance for teachers who fail to seek the cooperation of the parents of the children. The job of the psychologist includes respect for differing ethnicities and the dignity of the patients as well as acting responsible enough to treat the disability with full interest and an empathetic attitude.

As more research is required for psychologists regarding this minority to pursue their profession and job with full zeal, this research paper will be of great help. According to Al-khateeb (2015), brown children, specifically Muslim children, face a crisis in identity due to the negative impression on the outer world and among their peers. Students explain their distress as they can be the focus of harassment by their peers and teachers, as well as teacher favoritism (Al-khateeb, 2015). Some cases have emerged where Arab children felt abused when they were called terrorists by their peers in their learning institutions (De Melendez, 2018). These are all problems emerging due to the lack of literature on Arab families and their culture. The sensitivity of the issue and the resultant circumstances can prove fatal for the careers and the overall lives of these children. In this regard, some knowledge can be taken from this research paper.

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Latest Employment Opportunities Posted on NASET 

* IMMEDIATE HS Special Education (ELA) Teacher – The Special Education Teacher at KIPP Philadelphia Public Schools is required to perform the following duties, develop, monitor, and evaluate the effectiveness of special education programs and other student supports (Intervention, 504, ELL, etc.) To learn more – Click here

* Learning Specialist – Trinity School of Durham and Chapel Hill has an immediate need for a full-time Learning Specialist. The role of Learning Specialist is supporting students with learning differences and attention challenges by providing remediation and strategies through direct and indirect services while guiding students through the process of learning about their strengths, challenges, and giftings. To learn more – Click here

* Accessibility Program Manager – This person will report to the Division Director of Professional Services.  The purpose of this position is to assist the Division Director with developing strategies for teachers to use in classroom settings, identifying and leading committees of STEM accessibility subject matter experts, planning outreach events and meetings and general administrative support. To learn more – Click here

* Special Education Intervention Methodology Advisor – Peace Corps Response Volunteers (PCRV) with a degree in special education, at least 2 years of experience working with children, adolescents, and young people with intellectual disabilities, and advanced Spanish skills are needed to serve  in Peru as a Special Education Intervention Methodology Advisor for Residential Care Centers (CAR) in the Unit of Services for the Protection of People with Disabilities (USPPD). To learn more – Click here

* Special Education Teacher – Bartow, FL– The Invo-Progressus Team has incredible opportunities for Special Education Teachers…or, as we like to call them, Superheroes.  If you use your super powers to help ensure that children have access to the best education possible. To learn more – Click here

* Special Education Teacher – Wake up every morning knowing you have the power and the tools to change lives. EBS is the employer of choice for special education teachers who truly want to help children learn, evolve, and grow. Join us, and we’ll give you everything you need to fuel your passion as a special education teacher. To learn more – Click here

* Special Education Teacher – Newark Board of Education (NBOE) is now accepting applications for Special Education Teachers for the 2019-20 school year. Certified teachers, career changers, and recent graduates should apply today to be considered. Completing the central application will give principals the ability to access your resume and invite you to interview for open positions in your subject area.   To learn more – Click here

* Special Education Teacher, Teaching Assistant – The California Montessori Project seeks both Special Education Teachers and Special Education Teaching Assistants. These postions are available at multiple locations in California. To learn more – Click here

* Math and Science Teacher– The Katherine Thomas School in Rockville, MD seeks to hire full-time high school Special Education Math and Science teachers for 2019/2020 school year. Responsibilities include: implement content area curricula, provide necessary accommodations to meet individual, group, and program needs, write and implement IEPs, create a supportive learning environment, implement Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS) and create partnerships with parents and The Katherine Thomas High School Community. To learn more – Click here

* Chief Clinical Officer– Criterion Child Enrichment is conducting a search for a Chief Clinical Officer (CCO).  Founded in 1985 as a not-for-profit organization, Criterion has served families for over 30 years and is a leading provider of early childhood education and early intervention services in Massachusetts.  Each year the agency serves over 7000 families with a staff of over 400 through a program network that extends throughout the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. To learn more – Click here

* Early Childhood Educational Diagnostician/Assessor – is responsible for accurately assessing a child’s needs after s/he is referred to Early Stages through the administration of the appropriate screenings and educational assessments. The Coordinator functions as part of a multi-disciplinary team that collaborates to determine eligibility for special education services and is responsible for leading the team’s collaboration and composing IEPs for children with special needs. To learn more- Click here

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Acknowledgements

Portions of this or previous month’s NASET’s Special Educator e-Journal were excerpted from:

• Center for Parent Information and Resources
• Committee on Education and the Workforce
• FirstGov.gov-The Official U.S. Government Web Portal
• Journal of the American Academy of Special Education Professionals (JAASEP)
• National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability for Youth
• National Institute of Health
• National Organization on Disability
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
• U.S. Department of Education
• U.S. Department of Education-The Achiever
• U.S. Department of Education-The Education Innovator
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
• U.S. Department of Labor
• U.S. Food and Drug Administration
• U.S. Office of Special Education

The National Association of Special Education Teachers (NASET) thanks all of the above for the information provided for this or prior editions of the Special Educator e-Journal

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To View or Download a PDF file for this issue of the Special Educator e-Journal  –  CLICK HERE

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