March 2019 – Special Educator e-Journal


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Special Education Legal Alert

By Perry A. Zirkel

© February 2019

This month’s update concerns two issues that were subject to recent court decisions and are of practical significance: (a) contingent IEPs for students in third-party placements, such as Medicaid-provided residential treatment facilities; and (b) restrictions on parental communications to district personnel based on a previous pattern of excessive or intimidating e-mails, calls, and/or visits.

In Culley v. Cumberland Valley School District (2018), the Third Circuit Court of Appeals addressed the issues of a tenth grader with Crohn’s disease in the wake of his expulsion for attempting to leave campus with a few other students during the school day.  The parents had informed the school upon his initial diagnosis in grade 1.  He did not have any academic or disciplinary difficulties until grade 7.  By the end of grade 9, he had accumulated mounting disciplinary incidents, low grades, and high absenteeism.  At that time, the school received and complied with a physician’s request for limited accommodations in the wake of surgery.  In grade 10, the sequence was: (a) the aforementioned disciplinary incident; (b) a doctor’s note 10 days later with a fuller diagnosis and accommodations request, (c) the parents’ due process complaint 2 days thereafter; (d) a 504 plan about a month later, (e) during the following month, the board’s expulsion decision and the IDEA evaluation report, which concluded that he did not need special education; and (f) a subsequent independent educational evaluation (IEE) that reached the opposite conclusion.  The hearing officer’s resulting decision agreed with the district’s IDEA’s eligibility determination.  The parents filed for judicial review.  

First, the federal district court ruled, and the Third Circuit affirmed, that the district violated child find under both Sec. 504 and the IDEA.  The district had the requisite reasonable suspicion under Sec. 504 upon receiving the diagnosis of Crohn’s disease in grade 1 and under IDEA upon his academic and disciplinary turnaround in grade 7.

Both court decisions were not officially published and, thus, of limited legal weight.  Nevertheless, the Sec. 504 child find/eligibility analysis based on Crohn’s disease, regardless of educational impact, serves as a solid warning for districts.[1]  In contrast, the IDEA child find analysis is much less generalizable, being specific to the particular facts and court.

 

Second, the district court ruled, and the Third Circuit agreed, that the IEE provided a fuller and more accurate picture than the district’s evaluation, including his need for special education.  The Third Circuit diagnosed the district’s fatal eligibility error as follows: “In seeing Crohn’s as something requiring only a Section 504 accommodation, not IDEA special education, [the district] treated the disease as something discrete and isolated rather than the defining condition of [this student’s] life.”

This particular judicial analysis of IDEA eligibility also contains a generalizable lesson and a contrasting limitation.  The lesson is that physical diseases, although often an issue of Sec. 504 eligibility, may also be an issue of overlapping IDEA eligibility, with the murky matter being the need for special education.  The limitation is that the court’s rather easy acceptance of the IEE, including its exclusion of IDEA eligibility from deference to district expertise and its broad-brushed treatment of Crohn’s disease and special education need are atypical.

     For articles on Sec. 504 child find/eligibility and IDEA child/find eligibility, see the “Publications” section of perryzirkel.com

[1] The latent Sec. 504 issues, which the court did not address, are (a) FAPE, (b) manifestation determination, and (c) compensatory education.

In M.S. v. Los Angeles Unified School District (2019), the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals addressed the district of residence’s obligations under the IDEA for a student with disabilities whom the state’s children and family services agency had residentially placed for mental health treatment pursuant to a juvenile court order under state law.  The student in this case had been a ward of the state since age 11 due to physical abuse and caretaker incapacity.  Here first few years in this status included various episodes of violence to others, five mental health hospitalizations, and eight different placements, including foster homes and residential placements.  Her last pertinent placement was at a locked, residential mental health facility by the order of a juvenile court.  During this period, the district’s February 2014 and October 2014 IEPs provided for placement at a nonpublic school affiliated with the residential treatment facility (RTF).

In a brief but officially published decision, the Ninth Circuit agreed with the district court’s “thorough and well-reasoned opinion” that the district of residence has an independent obligation to ensure that the full least restrictive environment (LRE) continuum was available to this student, including consideration of whether she needed a residential placement for educational purposes.[1]  More specifically, the affirmed lower court analysis consisted of the two steps for procedural FAPE rulings.

Amounting to a summary affirmance, the Ninth Circuit decision is not quite as weighty as a full opinion, but its officially published wholesale adoption of the lower court’s analysis is still of considerable precedential heft as a matter of binding effect in the nine states of this circuit and persuasive effect in other jurisdictions.  Moreover, this ruling is similar to but different from the Pennsylvania case in last month’s alert, because this case arose during, not upon impending discharge from, an RTF, and this RTF was the result of juvenile court/children services agency action, not Medicaid coverage.

First, the lower court concluded that the district’s refusal to discuss the possibility of the student’s residential placement for educational purposes was a procedural violation—specifically, predetermination.

Although most courts have been stingy in response to parents’ predetermination claims, here the court’s disagreement with the legal position underlying is refusal made this conclusion inevitable.    

Second, the court concluded the predetermination resulted in a substantive denial of FAPE based on the “strong likelihood” that discussion at the two successive IEP meetings as to whether this student needed a residential placement for educational reasons would have better led to an appropriate placement.

This rather stretched conclusion avoided determining whether this student was entitled under the IDEA to a residential placement at district expense.  Thus, the court effectively adopted a middle ground requiring the IEP team consider but not necessarily adopt the residential or a less restrictive end of the LRE continuum.

 

Finally, the court found it unnecessary to decide definitively whether the two successive IEPs met the Endrew F. standard or to address at all whether the student was entitled under the IDEA to a residential placement.

For the first issue, the court came close, commenting that because the IEP team failed to even consider whether a residential placement for educational purposes might be appropriate, “the District cannot establish that [the] IEPs met this standard.”

The bottom line is that a student’s placement outside the district by another agency or funding organization for mental or physical health

does not necessarily excuse the school district of residence from fulfilling its fiscal obligations to the child, including FAPE in the LRE. 

[1] The federal circuits have various overlapping tests for hybrid residential placements under the IDEA.  The Ninth and Second Circuits base the determination on whether such a placement is necessary for the child’s education needs.  Ashland Sch. Dist. v. Parents of Student R.J., 588 F.3d 1004 (9th Cir. 2009); M.H. v.Monroe-Woodbury Cent. Sch. Dist., 296 F. App’x 126 (2d Cir. 2008).  For examples of other variations, see Jefferson Cty. Sch. Dist. R-1 v. Elizabeth E., 702 F.3d 1227 (10th Cir. 2012) (whether it fits “straightforward application” of IDEA for accredited education facility plus mental health—not medical—support as related services); Richardson Indep. Sch. Dist. v. Michael Z., 580 F.3d 286 (5th Cir. 2009) (whether it is essential for the child to receive meaningful educational benefit and primarily oriented toward enabling the child to obtain an education); Mary T. v. Sch. Dist., 575 F.3d 235 (3d Cir. 2009) (whether it is necessary for educational purposes or instead a response to medical, social or emotional problems that are segregable from the learning process).

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Characteristics of Students with Disabilities, Evidence-based Practices, and Resources

Nai-Cheng Kuo, Marion Wilson, Allysa Orr, Connell Reddick,

Mary Ecols, Alvin Holsey, Dakota Wallace

 

Augusta University

Abstract

To reduce teachers’ anxiety and burden in their first year of teaching, this article provides an overview of characteristics of students with disabilities, evidence-based practices, and up-to-date resources. The information is organized based on the prevalence of disabilities categorized by the U.S. Department of Education. First-year teachers can use this article to quickly identify different interventions and classroom management strategies. They can use this article to collaborate with colleagues and increase their understanding and acceptance of students with special needs. This quick reference guide is beneficial for both new and experienced teachers as well as all professionals who work with students who have disabilities.

Keywords: special needs, disabilities, characteristics, evidence-based practices, resources

Introduction

Scenario: Mr. Johnson is a first-year special education teacher. He works with students who have different types of disabilities, ranging from specific learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorder, emotional disorders, other health impairment, and deafness. Their educational performance ranges from A to F with some students needing small group instruction and some students needing one-on-one instruction. Facing so many students with different disabilities, Mr. Johnson feels overwhelmed to meet their learning needs.

Mr. Johnson’s situation is not uncommon for many novice special education teachers. The number of special education teachers’ attrition is increasing each year. Whitaker’s (2000) research study shows that first-year special education teachers found their first year of teaching much tougher than they had expected, including differentiation, individualizing instruction, special education paper work, managing para-educators, and not having para-educators. Other reasons for teacher attrition can be found in Billingsley, Crockett, and Kamman’s (2014) and Reinke, Herman, Stormont, Newcomer, & David (2013). Special education teachers not only work with students who have a variety of different needs in the special education classroom but also need to assist general education teachers in the inclusive classroom. These teachers need continuous support to help them deliver effective instruction and sustain their passion for special education (Huling, 1995; Martin & Hauth, 2015). To reduce teachers’ anxiety and burden in their first year of teaching, this article provides an overview of characteristics of students with disabilities, evidence-based practices, and up-to-date resources. This article is also beneficial to those who need to provide services for students with special needs, such as para-educators, substitutes, and therapists.

Disability Prevalence

The federal government provides information about the latest disability prevalence in United States public schools (see Table 1). Based on the prevalence, we describe the characteristics of students with disabilities, evidence-based practices, and resources in the following sections.

Table 1

Disability prevalence in U.S. public schools

 

Disability Category

Prevalence

1

Specific learning disabilities

2,336,960

2

Speech and language impairments

1,014,817

3

Other health impairments

934,020

4

Autism spectrum disorders

578,765

5

Intellectual disabilities

416,205

6

Emotional and behavioral disorders (Emotional disturbance)

335,301

7

Developmental delays

154,034

8

Multiple disabilities

125,868

9

Hearing impairments

65,465

10

Orthopedic impairments

36,253

11

Traumatic brain injury

25,210

12

Visual impairments

24,706

13

Deafblindness

1,278

 

 

 

 

All disabilities

6,048,882

 

 

 

 

Source: U.S. Department of Education (2018)

  

The Most Prevalent Disabilities

Specific learning disabilities and speech/language impairments are the most prevalent disabilities (>1 millions). In other words, most students with disabilities in K-12 schools fall into these two categories.

Specific Learning Disabilities

Specific learning disabilities is defined as “in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia” (IDEA, 2018). Adding to IDEA’s definition, the Learning Disabilities Association of America (2018) defines specific learning disabilities as neurologically-based processing problems that “can interfere with learning basic skills such as reading, writing and/or math…also interfere with higher level skills such as organization, time planning, abstract reasoning, long or short term memory and attention.” These students often have average or above average intellectual abilities. However, because their brains function differently, they may encounter difficulties in academic learning such as poor perception, comprehension, calculation, communication, or organization.

Evidence-based practices for this group of students focus on direct and explicit instruction (Beach, Sanchez, Flynn, & O’Connor, 2015). Teachers should show students concrete examples, highlight key points, and give them a variety of opportunities to practice with timely feedback. Moreover, because some students cannot perceive complicated information easily, are persistent in using inefficient ways to handle information, and have a short attention span, teachers should break down skills and teach them systematically. To increase students’ comprehension, teachers need to carefully plan the sequence of instructional activities and utilize advanced organizers.

The LD Online, funded by the federal government, provides teachers with instructional strategies and accommodation tools about students with learning disabilities. The Learning Disabilities Association of America provides information about laws and policies, guidelines, accommodations, techniques, and resources about this group of students. The PBS Parents introduces various types of learning disabilities, activities, alternative communication methods, and assistive technology.

Speech and Language Impairments

Speech and language impairments are defined as communication disorders, which include “stuttering, impaired articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance” (IDEA, 2018). Speech refers to how people pronounce sounds and words and language refers to how people use words to express their ideas or thoughts. According to the American Speech-Language Hearing Association (2018), people with speech problems may not pronounce words clearly, have a hoarse or raspy voice, repeat sounds, or pause when speaking. In contrast, people with language problems often have difficulties in understanding, talking, reading, and writing.  

Research shows that naturalistic conversation training results in better spontaneous speech production of students with speech disabilities than targeted phonemic training (Camarata, 1993; Stockall, 2011). By using a language in real-life contexts, students learn how to use the language pragmatically. The other study conducted by Rasing and Duker (1992) indicates that a combined intervention involving explicit training, goal setting, supervision, and feedback can effectively help students with language disabilities improve their communication and social skills.

 The Speech and Language Milestone Chart, provided by PRO-ED Inc., helps teachers know if their students may have suspicious speech and language developmental delays. If teachers have questions about how to work with students who have speech and language impairments, they may find a brief article written by the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association helpful. The article is entitled “Helping Children with Communication Disorders in the Schools.” For more information, Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in School, a practitioner-friendly research journal, is a good tool to help teachers know how to best support this group of students. Table 2 shows a summary of the characteristics of students with the most prevalent disabilities, evidence-based practices, and resources.?

Table 2

A summary of characteristics of students with disabilities, evidence-based practices, and resources (the most prevalent disabilities)

Category

Characteristics

Intervention

Resources

Specific Learning Disabilities

  • Normal or above-average intellectual functioning
  • Deficits in receptive skills (i.e., listening and reading) and expressive skills (i.e., speaking and writing) caused by brain dysfunction
  • Unexpected failures in educational performance
  • Advanced organizers
  • Direct instruction
  • Explicit instruction
  • Segmentation
  • Sequencing/ Systematic instruction
  • LD Online: www.ldonline.org/article/8022/
  • Learning Disabilities Association of America: ldaamerica.org/accommodations-techniques-and-aids-for-learning/
  • PBS Parents: www.pbs.org/parents/education/learning-disabilities/basics/causes/

Speech and Language Impairments

  • Communication disorders including blurred articulation, language or voice impairments, stutter-like disfluencies
  • Feelings of failure and low self-esteem
  • A communication disability that adversely affects the student’s educational performance
  • Explicit training
  • Goal setting
  • Supervision and feedback
  • Naturalistic conversation training
  • Pragmatic language use
  • Speech and Language Milestone Chart: www.ldonline.org/article/6313
  • Helping Children with Communication Disorders in the Schools: www.readingrockets.org/article/helping-children-communication-disorders-schools
  • Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in School: lshss.pubs.asha.org/journal.aspx

High Prevalent Disabilities

Other health impairments, autism spectrum disorders, intellectual disabilities, emotional and behavioral disorders, developmental delays, and multiple disabilities are high prevalent disabilities (> 100 thousands). It is common to encounter students with these types of special needs in K-12 schools.

 Other Health Impairments

Other health impairments refer to students who have limited strength, vitality, or alertness resulted from “chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and Tourette syndrome” (IDEA, 2018). Not all students with health impairments requires special education services. It depends on if the health impairments adversely affect their educational performance.

Among health impairments, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders (ADHD) are common in the classroom. Beyond seating arrangements, researchers found that antecedent interventions are needed to improve the learning of students with ADHD, such as behavior momentum and group contingency (Carbone, 2001), choice boards (Binder, Dixon, & Ghezzi, 2000), peer reinforcement on adequate behavior (Flood, Wilder, Flood, & Masuda, 2002; Grauvogel-MacAleese & Wallace, 2010), class-wide peer tutoring (DuPaul, Ervin, & McGoey, 1998), and school-wide support like PBIS (McKinley & Stormont, 2008).

Special education teachers should work closely with school nurses if they have students with health impairments in their classrooms. An IRIS module, entitled “Working with Your School Nurse: What General Education Teachers Should Do to Promote Educational Success for Students with Health Needs,” describes roles of school nurses and how teachers can work with school nurses to help students succeed in school. Because there are different types of health impairments and teachers may not be prepared to teach all kinds of these, the practitioner-friendly journal, Teaching Exceptional Children, is a good resource for teachers who work with diverse learners.

Autism Spectrum Disorders

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are developmental disabilities that significantly affect students’ social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, and their academic performance. ASD includes: (a) autistic disorder, (b) childhood disintegrative disorder, (c) pervasive developmental disorder-not otherwise specified (Autism Speaks, 2018). IDEA (2018) states that “characteristics often associated with autism are engagement in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences.” Some students with ASD may have very narrow interests and do not make proper eye contact or social interaction with people.

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) has been considered effective for students with ASD (Ryan, Hughes, Katsiyannis, McDaniel, & Sprinkle, 2014; Trump, Pennington, Travers, Ringdahl, Whiteside, & Ayres, 2018). By modifying the environment and consequences, students’ problem behavior can be reduced. Video-modeling plus follow-up explicit instruction are found effective to help students with ASD acquire academic and social skills (Plavnick, 2013; Plavnick, Sam, & Hume, 2013). Video-modeling provides not only concrete examples but also multisensory stimulation. When teachers purposefully identify videos based on the function of students’ behavior, it can also help students establish verbal repertoires and improve communication skills (Plavnick & Ferreri, 2011). Moreover, because many students with ASD have deficits in communication and social interaction, it is important to teach them social skills to help them use adequate behavior to convey their thoughts, thus reducing aggressive behavior (Otero, Schatz, Merrill, & Bellini, 2015).

Autism Speaks provides five free tool kits for teachers. The first resource for students with ASD is called the Challenging Behaviors Tool Kit. This kit helps teachers prevent and intervene challenging behavior of students with ASD, including self-injuries, aggressive behavior, and property destruction. The second resource is called the Individualized Education Program (IEP). This kit provides a summary, process, and practical tips about the IEPs of students with ASD. The third resource is called the Puzzle Piece Project Tool Kit. This kitoffers engaging activities for teachers in K-12 to help typical learners understand and accept people with ASD. The fourth resource is called the School Community Tool Kit. This kit provides information about ASD as well as teaching and learning resources for all members of the school community. The fifth resource is called the Transition Tool Kit. This kitguides teachers to assist students with ASD on the journey from adolescence to adulthood.

Intellectual Disabilities

Intellectual disabilities refer to students whose intellectual functioning is significantly lower than their peers without disabilities. Students with intellectual disabilities have deficits in adaptive behavior, which is manifested during their developmental periods and that adversely affects their educational performance (IDEA, 2018). Down syndrome is a type of intellectual disabilities. The American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (2018) describes individuals with intellectual disabilities as having significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior.

Hicks, Bethune, Wood, Cooke, and Mims’s (2013) research study shows that direct instruction is an effective approach to help students with intellectual disabilities develop language skills. Direct instruction involves using explicit, systematic, and scripted procedures to deliver information. Furthermore, incorporating adapted texts and augmentations, a predictable structure, and graphic organizers are all found to be effective (Hudson, Browder, & Wakeman, 2013). Dictation-taking (vocal spelling) and match-to-sample trainings can also increase the language skills of students with intellectual disabilities (De Souza & Rehfeldt, 2013). To promote students’ independent response and reduce reliance on prompts, Hausman, Ingvarsson, and Kahng (2014) suggest that teachers should deliver reinforcement that is contingent on the desired level of independent response from students with intellectual disabilities.

The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY) and the Center for Parent Information and Resources provide an overview of intellectual disabilities and tips for both parents and teachers. Particularly for students with Down syndrome, the Down Syndrome Research Foundation has created a 30-minute video to demonstrate examples about explicit reading instruction for this group of students.

Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Due to mental or psychological illness, students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) encounter difficulties in learning, building or maintaining satisfactory interpersonal relationships with others, using proper behavior, and/or controlling feeling under normal circumstances. They show a pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression, and have a tendency to develop injuries or fears associated with personal or school problems (IDEA, 2018). Their emotional conditions adversely affect their educational performance. The National Alliance on Mental Illness Southern Arizona (2018) argues that mental illness, a medical condition, can “disrupt a person’s thinking, feeling, mood, ability to relate to others and daily functioning…They cannot be overcome through ‘will power’ and are not related to a person’s ‘character’ or ‘intelligence.’ Serious mental illness may include “major depression, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), panic disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and borderline personality disorder” (National Alliance on Mental Illness Southern Arizona, 2018).

Research studies on applied behavior analysis (ABA) indicate that when antecedent events and consequences are changed, students with EBD are likely to change their behavior accordingly. For example, the delivery of high-probability request sequence increases in students’ compliant behavior (Davis & Reichle, 1996). When teachers purposefully arrange tasks from less challenging to more challenging, students are likely to remain engaged in difficult ones. This is because they are already in a working mood and the sequence may help them build confidence. Choice making is another technique to increase task engagement and to reduce disruptive behavior of students with EBD (Dunlap, DePerczel, Clarke, Wilson, Wright, White, & Gomez, 1994; Kern, Vorndran, Hilt, Ringdahl, Adelman, & Dunlap, 1998). Moreover, teachers’ active attending can reduce students’ problem behaviors (Perle, 2016). Other behavior techniques like fixed?time reinforcement schedules are also recommended (Rasmussen & O’Neill, 2006). This is because when reinforcement is anticipated, students are more likely to complete their tasks. After students can perform a task steadily, schedule-thinning sessions should be introduced to avoid students from relying on reinforcers. Despite behavior techniques are crucial, providing high-quality instruction to improve students’ comprehension and language skills is key to helping students with EBD build confidence and improve educational performance (Garwood, Ciullo, & Brunsting, 2017).

The IRIS Center has created eleven modules related to EBD. These modules include: (a) the acting-out-cycle, (b) behavioral interventions of disruptive and noncompliant behaviors, (c) components of behavior management plans, (d) early childhood behavior management, (e) evidence-based practices, (f) functional behavioral assessment, (g) self-monitoring, (h) self-instruction, (i) goal-setting, (j) self-reinforcement, and (k) juvenile corrections.Furthermore, the RTI Action Network details what teachers can do to support students behaviorally in Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier 3 of Response to Intervention (RTI). The Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders also provides information about behavior support plans, , anger management, behavior contracts, choice making, conflict resolution, cooperative learning, crisis management, functional behavior analysis, transition plans, group contingency, mental health, peer supports, pre-correction, self-monitoring, social skills, and study skills.

Developmental Delays

According to IDEA (2018), significant developmental delays refer to students’ delays in their adaptive behavior, cognition, communication, motor, and/or emotional development to the extent that adversely affect their educational performance. The eligibility of significant developmental delays may be used between ages three and nine. However, the National Association of Councils on Developmental Disabilities (2018) argues that developmental delays can still be identified after nine years old due to factors like child neglect and poor resources. Developmental delays result in “substantial functional limitations in three or more of the following areas of major life activity: self-care, receptive and expressive language, learning, mobility, self-direction, capacity for independent living, and economic self-sufficiency” Association of Councils on Developmental Disabilities, 2018).

Research shows that students with developmental delays can learn how to distinguish items effectively through explicit teaching and appropriate reinforcement (Sy & Vollmer, 2012). Providing these students with immediate error corrections is more effective to improve their academic learning than delayed error correction, so students can generalize skills more accurately (Barbetta, Heward, Bradley, & Miller, 1994).  Other behavior-analytic techniques like sign language combined with social skill training, prompt delays, and vocal prompting can increase students’ communication skills (Carbone, Sweeney-Kerwin, Attanasio, & Kasper, 2010).

Funded by the Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP), Reading Rockets website details the five areas of developmental delays, including motor, cognition, communication, social and emotion, and adaptive behavior. The website also provides evidence-based instructional strategies and information about early intervention services. Besides, Do2Learn website provides hands-on activities, songs, and instructional strategies for teachers to accommodate students who have developmental delays. Grounded in research, the website, Teaching Children with Developmental Disabilities: Classroom Ideas, provides teachers with ideas about how to use visual cues, clear and predictable daily schedules, direct and explicit instruction, motivation techniques, structured opportunities, and generation of skills to help students with developmental delays succeed.

Multiple Disabilities

Multiple disabilities refer to “concomitant impairments (such as intellectual disability-blindness or intellectual disability-orthopedic impairment), the combination of which causes such severe educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for one of the impairments” (IDEA, 2018). The “multiple disabilities” classification, just as it sounds, can be viewed as an umbrella term to indicate that students have more than one disability. It is important to note that multiple disabilities does not include students who are both deaf and blind. Deafblindness is a separate disability category under IDEA.

Research suggests that high-quality literacy instruction on a daily basis is important to help students with multiple disabilities build literacy abilities (Fenlon, McNabb, & Pidlypchak, 2010). Additionally, giving these students choices and teaching them self-regulation strategies have found effective to increase their work completion (Mithaug, Mithaug, Agran, Martin, & Wehmeyer, 2002).

Because there are numerous combinations of disabilities that a student may have, Teaching Exception Children and IRIS modules are good resources for teachers who with students who have multiple disabilities. When identifying and implementing interventions, teachers need to assess students’ abilities comprehensively, collaborate with specialists, and consider how one disability may affect the other disability potentially. Table 3 shows a summary of the characteristics of students with high prevalent disabilities, evidence-based practices, and resources.?

Table 3

A summary of characteristics of students with disabilities, evidence-based practices, and resources (high prevalent disabilities)

Category

Characteristics

Intervention

Resources

Other Health Impairments

  • Health impairments including Attention Deficits Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Tourette’s syndrome, diabetes, asthma, and epilepsy that adversely affect the student’s life functioning
  • Limited strength and low vitality
  • Short attention or memory

ADHD in particular:

  • Behavior momentum
  • Choice boards
  • Class-wide and school-wide support
  • Group contingency
  • Peer reinforcement
  • IRIS module (Working with your school nurse): iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/nur02-schoolnurse/#content
  • Teaching Exceptional Children

journals.sagepub.com/home/tcx

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

  • Unique response to sensory experiences
  • Engagement in repetitive activities
  • Resistance to changes in routines and environments
  • Developmental disabilities that adversely affect the student’s educational performance

 

  • Behavior momentums
  • Chaining
  • Functional behavior assessment
  • Group contingency
  • Reinforcement
  • Social skills training
  • Video-modeling
  • Challenging Behaviors Tool Kit: www.autismspeaks.org/toolkit/challenging-behaviors-tool-kit
  • Individualized Education Program:  www.autismspeaks.org/tool-kit/individualized-education-program-iep-summary-process-and-practical-tips
  • Puzzle Piece Project  Tool Kit: www.autismspeaks.org/tool-kit/puzzle-piece-project
  • School Community Tool Kit: www.autismspeaks.org/tool-kit/school-community-tool-kit
  • Transition Tool Kit: www.autismspeaks.org/tool-kit/transition-tool-kit

Intellectual Disabilities

  • Below-average intellectual functioning
  • Deficits in adaptive behavior (daily living skills)

 

  • Predictable structures
  • Adapted texts and augmentations
  • Direct instruction
  • Explicit, systematic, and scripted procedures
  • Graphic organizers
  • Match-to-sample
  • Systematically reducing prompts
  • Vocal spelling
  • Intellectual Disabilities – Center for Parent Information and Resources:

www.parentcenterhub.org/intellectual/

  • Successful Strategies for Beginning Readers with Down Syndrome:

www.youtube.com/watch?v=d2aqG9PzXB0

www.dsrf.org/programs-&-resources/our-videos/

Emotional and Behavioral Disorder (EBD)

  • Inability to build or maintain relationships with others
  • Unable to learn with peers
  • Consistent inappropriate behavior
  • Pervasive mood of anger, frustration, anxiety, depression, etc.
  • Tendency to develop fears, anxiety, or self-injury behavior
  • Adjusting antecedent events and consequences
  • Choice-making
  • Functional behavior assessment
  • Fixed?time reinforcement
  • High-probability (high-p) request sequence
  • Teacher attending
  • IRIS Modules on EBD:

iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/resources/iris-resource-locator/

  • RTI Behavior Interventions & Support:

www.rtinetwork.org/learn/behavior-supports

  • Classroom and Behavior Management for K-12 Educators:

www.ccbd.net/teacherresources

Developmental Delays

 

  • Delayed development in cognition, behavior, language, communication, motor, and emotion.  
  • Without an early intervention, it can adversely affect the student’s educational performance

 

  • Alternatives and appropriate reinforcement
  • Immediate error correction
  • Sign language combined with mandatory training, prompt delay
  • Vocal prompting
  • Five Developmental Areas: www.readingrockets.org/article/developmental-delay
  • Do2Learn (Strategies for Developmental Delay): do2learn.com/disabilities/CharacteristicsAndStrategies/DevelopmentalDelay_Strategies.html
  • Teaching Children With Developmental Disabilities:

www.interventioncentral.org/behavioral-interventions/special-needs/teaching-children-developmental-disabilities-classroom-ideas

Multiple Disabilities

  • Concomitant impairments (such as intellectual disability-blindness or intellectual disability-orthopedic impairment)
  • High-quality literacy instruction
  • Assistive technology
  • Student interests
  • Choices
  • Self-regulation strategies
  • Teaching Exceptional Children:

journals.sagepub.com/home/tcx

  • IRIS modules

iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/resources/iris-resource-locator/

 

Low Prevalent Disabilities

Low prevalent disabilities include hearing impairments, orthopedic impairments, traumatic brain injury, visual impairments, and deafblindness (<100 thousands). Comparing with other types of special needs, the number of students with these types of special needs is relatively low in K-12 schools.

Hearing Impairments

IDEA (2018) defines “deafness” as a hearing impairment that the child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification. It defines “hearing loss” as an impairment with hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance. On the other hand, the Hearing Loss Association of America (HLAA, 2018) defines “deafness” as those “who usually have no useful residual hearing and who generally use sign language as their primary mode of communication.” HLAA defines “hard of hearing” as those “who use residual hearing, amplification and/or hearing assistive technology and who do not use sign language as a primary mode of communication.” It is important to note that IDEA’s definition on hearing impairments stresses the impact of hearing impairments on students’ educational performance, while the Hearing Loss Association of America only describes different communication methods that this group of people use. The Hearing Loss Association of America is focused on advocating for the Deaf and its community as a valid culture, and thus they re-define this group of people as not disadvantaged.

Research studies have shown the effectiveness of using the dialogic reading technique with students who are deaf or hard of hearing (Fung, Chow, & McBride-Chang, 2005). This technique, developed by Whitehurst, Falco, Lonigan, Fischel, DeBaryshe, and Valdez-Menchaca (1988), utilizes picture books and adult-children interactions to increase students’ reading engagement and comprehension. This technique follows a sequence called “PEER: Prompt, Evaluation, Expansion, and Repetition” (Whitehurst, et al., 1988). Teachers first promote students to look at the pictures, and then they will sign or use verbal language to evaluate students’ understanding of the story.  Based on students’ responses, teachers extend the level of questions. The procedures are repeated until the storybook is completed. In addition, effective teaching involves clear learning goals, a systematic procedure of delivering information, appropriate feedback and reinforcement, and sufficient practice opportunities help this group of students succeed in an inclusive classroom (Antia, Stinson, & Gaustad, 2002). Explicit instruction on reading plus readily accessible language experiences via technology can also maximize students’ learning (Lederberg, Schick, & Spencer, 2012; Luckner, Slike, & Johnson, 2012).

The webpage, Accommodations for Students with Hearing Loss, created by Better Hearing Institute, provides information about amplification options, assistive devices, curricular modifications, evaluation modifications, and accommodations in communication, physical environment, and instruction. Another webpage, Hearing Loss in the Classroom, created by the Ohio Coalition for the Education of Children with Disabilities, provides teaching strategies to meet the needs of students with hearing loss in the classroom. Information about understanding and protecting students with hearing loss is also provided. Funded by the Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP), the webpage, Hearing Impairment Resources, provides thorough information and resources about hearing impairment. Last but not least, a 24-minute video clip entitled “100 Basic Signs” helps teachers learn basic American Sign Language in the classroom.

Orthopedic Impairments

Orthopedic impairments are characterized by physical disabilities that significantly affect a student’s academic functioning in the classroom.  Students who are eligible under this category may have one of the following disabilities: cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy, amputated limbs, or severe burns that caused the skin and/or muscles to contract which affects their functioning in the school setting (IDEA, 2018).          

Interventions for students with orthopedic impairments vary depending on their learning needs, physical status, and the severity of their disability. Teachers should make sure that there are no obstacles in the environment that will cause harm to students or impede them from accessing activities. Students with spina bifida may have difficulties in the following areas: patience, attention, memory, sequencing, organization, higher-order thinking (e.g., processing, flexibility, conceptualization, and problem solving), and visual-perceptual skills (Russell, 2004).  Coleman-Martin and Heller (2013) found constant prompt-delay procedures helpful in increasing the literacy abilities of students with physical disabilities. For example, at the initial stages, the teacher will point to the word, “school,” and ask students: “what word?” The prompt of a school picture will be presented immediately. Gradually, the teacher will delay the prompt of the picture and then fade out using the prompt when students can recognize the word independently. Similarly, when teaching spelling, at the initial stages, the teacher will show the word, “school,” and ask students: “how do you spell the word ‘school’?” The prompt of the word, school, will be presented immediately. Gradually, the teacher will delay the prompt of the word and then fade out using the prompt when students can spell the word independently. The constant prompt-delay procedures can also be used to teach students social skills and cultivate them to become independent learners.

There are three useful resources for working with students who have orthopedic disabilities. The webpage, Cerebral Palsy: Teachers Tips for Inclusive Classrooms, created by Cerebral Palsy Guidance, provides advice and tips that teachers can use to create an inclusive, meaningful, and engaging learning environment for students with cerebral palsy. The document, Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), created by the Special Education Support Service, helps teachers understand developmental coordination disorders (also called motor dyspraxia). Teachers can also find tips in this document to help students improve motor skills, sensory sensitivity, organization, handwriting, speed, and attention. Furthermore, the webpage, Living with Spina Bifida: School-Aged Children, created by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), provides information about how to protect the safety and health of students with Spina Bifida in schools.

Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) refers to “an acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment, or both, that adversely affects the child’s educational performance” (IDEA, 2018). TBI can cause a person’s immediate or delayed impairments in “cognition, language, memory, attention, reasoning, abstract thinking, judgment, problem solving, sensory, perceptual and motor abilities, psychosocial behavior, physical functions, speech and/or information processing” (IDEA, 2018). Because the human brain is so sophisticated, the trauma is often unpredictable and falls across a wide spectrum depending on the causes, location, and severity of the injury (Brain Injury Association of America, 2018).

Research suggests that using choice boards can increase on-task behavior of individuals with TBIs (Tasky, Rudrud, Schulze, & Rapp, 2008). When teachers allow students to choose from a list of tasks, it empowers students and allows them to do preferred activities, which will increase their on-task behavior. In addition, peer and teacher supports are crucial. Davis and Outturn’s (1994) study shows that interdependent group-oriented contingency and graphic feedback are effective strategies to increase learners’ engagement. In an independent group-oriented contingency, each student is only responsible for his or her behavior. Reducing instructional demands, such as giving frequent breaks and small chunks of instructional activities, is another way to assist learners with TBIs in learning (Pace, Ivancic, & Jefferson, 1994; Schilling, & Getch, 2012). Furthermore, because some students with TBIs need to take medicine, teachers must be aware of their students’ changes in health, sensory, movement, and emotion after taking medication. Teachers should know the side effects of the medicine work closely with the parents and school nurses of students with TBIs. Teachers should carefully read parents’ daily notes regarding these children’s medications and respond in a timely manner.

In a 17-minute video clip, entitled “Understanding Traumatic Brain Injury,” created by Dr. Gefaller describes how the brain functions, types of TBI and their effects, warning signs, and needed support for people with TBI. Moreover, BrainLine has created two webpages that are particularly helpful for classroom teachers. The first one is called “Classroom Interventions for Students with Traumatic Brain Injuries,” which provides information about TBI backgrounds, assessments, and setting accommodations. Both general and specialized accommodations are discussed, including a case study with an 11-year-old student who has TBI. The second one is called “Helping Your Child Return to School Successfully,” which offers teaching and learning skills about attention, concentration, memory, test taking, planning and organization, and behavior management for students with TBI.

Visual Impairments

According to IDEA (2018), visual impairments, including partial sight and blindness, are impairments in vision that adversely affect students’ educational performance even with correction. The types of visual impairments include functional limitation, legal blindness, low vision, total blindness, and vision loss (American Foundation for the Blind, 2018).

When working with students who are deaf or have visual impairments, the first step is to ensure that the learning environment is safe and students have access to the curriculum with the help of technology such as screen readers, large-print programs, electronic note-taking devices, and/or Braille (Cox & Dykes, 2001; Bouck & Meyer, 2012). Allowing additional time for these students to complete a task or assessment is essential to student success. Dale and Salt (2007) summarize that intervention programs for students with visual impairment should consider five aspects: (a) social and emotional development, (b) communication, language, and meaning, (c) play and learning, (d) movement and mobility, and (e) moving towards independence and self-care. Toussaint and Tiger’s (2010) study indicates that using stimulus equivalence procedures helps students who use braille to improve their literacy skills. Stimulus equivalence procedures include introducing braille and painted letters respectively (reflexivity: A=A), from printed letters to braille and vice versa (symmetry: A=B, B=A), and from naming to braille or from braille to naming (transitivity: A=C, C=A). For students who have visual impairment but do not use braille, stimulus equivalence procedures are also helpful to ensure their understanding and generalization of skills.

Funded by the federal government, Vanderbilt University created three free IRIS modules dedicated to visual impairments. The first one is named “Accommodations to the Physical Environment: Setting up a Classroom for Students with Visual Disabilities,” which introduces functional considerations and guidelines for accommodating students with visual disabilities. The second one is named “Instructional Accommodations: Making the Learning Environment Accessible to Students with Visual Disabilities,” which helps teachers know how visual impairments influence learning and how to explain a core curriculum and adapt instruction to accommodate students. The third one is named “Serving Students with Visual Impairments: The Importance of Collaboration,” which explores ways that general education teachers, special education teachers, orientation and mobility specialists, and family can collaborate to maximize the learning of students with visual impairments.

Deafblindness

Deafblindness is a distinct disability. IDEA (2018) defines it as a “concomitant hearing and visual impairments, the combination of which causes such severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness.” Because of the severity, individuals with deafblindness rely heavily on specific services, environmental alterations, and assistive technology in order to participate in society (Canadian Deafblind Association Ontario, 2018).

Engleman, Griffin, Griffin, and Maddox (1999) suggest that teachers who work with students who have deafblindness should: (a) use multiple assessments over time and contexts, (b) use team planning that involves family and student input, (c) practice inclusive programming for students with deafblindness, (d) develop receptive communication and make the most of residual senses, (e) provide motivation for communication and increase engagement, (f) use a variety of consistent communicative cues. Furthermore, Grisham-Brown, Degirmenci, Snyder, and Luiselli (2018) found that web-based coaching and web-based conferencing applications from deafblindness specialists to teachers as effective as face-to-face training.

The National Center on Deaf-Blindness developed 21 free and user-friendly modules named The Open Hands, Open Access (OHOA): Deaf-Blind Intervener Learning Modules to help teachers understand the impacts of deaf-blindness on learning, communication strategies including sign language and Braille, educational supports, collaborations, family partnerships, and awareness of classroom settings. A report entitled “The National Child Count of Children and Youth who are Deaf-Blind,” details population demographics, etiologies, IDEA reports, educational support, and living settings. The Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) have funded all 50 states to support students who are deaf and blind. This program is called “the State Deaf-Blind Projects (SDBPs).” School administrators, teachers, and parents can contact their state for training, coaching, and support. Table 4 shows a summary of the characteristics of students with low prevalent disabilities, evidence-based practices, and resources.?

Table 4

A summary of characteristics of students with disabilities, evidence-based practices, and resources (low prevalent disabilities)

Category

Characteristics

Intervention

Resources

Hearing Impairments

  • Permanent or fluctuating loss in hearing
  • Deficits in receiving sounds affect acquisition of social, speech, language, and auditory skills

 

  • Systematic procedures of delivering information
  • Appropriate feedback and reinforcement
  • Clear learning goals
  • Dialogic reading (picture books and adult-children interactions)
  • Explicit instruction
  • PEER: Prompt, Evaluation, Expansion, and Repetition
  • Sufficient practice opportunities
  • Accommodations for Students with Hearing Loss:

successforkidswithhearingloss.com/for-professionals/accommodations-for-students-with-hearing-loss/

  • Hearing Loss in the Classroom:

www.betterhearing.org/hearing-loss-children/hearing-loss-classroom

  • Hearing Impairment Resources:

www.ocecd.org/HearingImpairmentResources.aspx

  • 100 Basic American Sign Language:

www.youtube.com/watch?v=ianCxd71xIo

Orthopedic Impairments

  • Mild to severe motor dysfunctions
  • Impairment caused by congenital disorders (e.g., cerebral palsy and polio), diseases (e.g., spinal tuberculosis), or injures (e.g., fracture/amputation)

 

  • Assistive technology
  • Environmental safety and accessibility
  • Prompt-delay procedures
  • Cerebral Palsy: Teachers Tips for Inclusive Classrooms:

www.cerebralpalsyguidance.com/cerebral-palsy/living/teacher-tips-inclusive-classrooms/

  • Developmental Coordination Disorder:

www.sess.ie/sites/default/files/Categories/ASD/10DCD_Motor_Dyspraxia.pdf

  • Living with Spina Bifida Children:

www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/spinabifida/school-age.html

Traumatic Brain Injury

  • Acquired injury to the brain (open or closed head injuries) caused by an external physical force
  • Total or partial functional disabilities
  • Physical or psychosocial impairments that adversely affect the student’s educational performance

 

  • Choices board
  • Frequent breaks
  • Graphic feedback
  • Independent and Interdependent group-oriented contingency
  • Reducing instructional demands
  • Small chunks of instructional activities.
  • Understanding Traumatic Brain Injury:

www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Tnjnei6Xr8

  • Classroom Interventions for Students with Traumatic Brain Injuries:

www.brainline.org/article/classroom-interventions-students-traumatic-brain-injuries

  • Helping Your Child Return to School Successfully:

www.brainline.org/article/helping-your-child-return-school-successfully

Visual Impairments

  • Having vision but even with correction still having difficulties in seeing words or distinguishing things
  • Having no vision at all
  • Access to the curriculum
  • Additional time
  • Assistive technology
  • Braille
  • Electronic note-taking devices
  • Large-print programs
  • Safe environment
  • Screen readers
  • Stimulus equivalence procedures

 

  • IRIS module on visual impairments:

iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/v01-clearview/#content

  • Instructional Accommodations: Making the Learning Environment Accessible to Students with Visual Disabilities:

iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/v02-successsight/

  • Serving Students with Visual Impairments: The Importance of Collaboration:

iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/v03-focusplay/

Deaf-Blindness

  • Severe difficulties in communication
  • Combination of hearing and visual impairments that adversely affects the student’s life functioning

 

  • Multiple assessments
  • Team planning
  • Inclusive programming
  • Receptive communication
  • Communication and engagement
  • Communication cues
  • Technology
  • Statewide resources
  • The Open Hands, Open Access (OHOA): Deaf-Blind Intervener Learning Modules: nationaldb.org/modules/ohoa/en/ohoa-deaf-blind-intervener-learning-modules
  • 2018 DB Child Count Instructions and Resource:

nationaldb.org/forum/thread/11/1212

  • State Deaf-Blind Projects (SDBPs):

nationaldb.org/members/list?type=State+Project

Conclusion

Today’s classrooms are more diverse than ever. Teachers have busy daily routines and thus having a systematic overview of students with disabilities, evidence-based practices, and up-to-date resources is helpful. First-year teachers can use this article to quickly identify different interventions and classroom management strategies. They can use this article to collaborate with colleagues and increase their understanding and acceptance of students with special needs. This quick reference guide is beneficial for both new and experienced teachers as well as all professionals who work with students who have disabilities. Because most of the thirteen disability categories have a wide spectrum that necessitates a variety of resources, teachers can combine strategies across disability categories. While this article is useful, it is important to note that these strategies and resources should not be treated as an all-inclusive guide as it is not possible to fully cover all of the facets of each disability. Teachers should take contextual factors into consideration such as students’ individuality and environmental supports when adopting the strategies and resources.

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Organizational Leadership “Analysis of Gifted Education Policy in Saudi Arabia”

Abdulmajeed Alzahrani

Introduction

Islamic values and principles make up the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’s (KSA) education system. The Ministry of Education (MOE) has the responsibility of managing the country’s school system. The ministry was established in 1954 after the birth of the country in 1932 (Mathis, 2010). It has since undergone many reforms, for instance, from being the preserve of a few to including all Saudi citizens and taking on a more pronounced leadership tangent. The paper will thus explain the history and vision of education in KSA, as well as the school organization and educational leadership in the country. This paper will also explain gifted education policy in KSA. The designing of education in KSA based on Islamic values and principles, including leadership reforms, has ensured it could serve the country’s need for development while preserving its sociocultural values.

The History and Vision

According to Mathis (2010), education in KSA is as young as the country’s independence. The Kingdom gained its independence as a nation and Kingdom in 1932 following Ibn Saudi’s efforts to unite “disparate tribes” and later establishing himself as their king (Mathis, 2010). Before then, education was informal, administered through madrassas that taught Islamic teachings and gender training at home through functional duties for females. Formal education came into being in the 1930s, with its path for improvement beginning in 1954 after the establishment of the Ministry of Education (Mathis, 2010). In addition, the country’s education system was further established to empower generations of Saudi youths (male and female) by imparting to them both Islamic values and the necessary knowledge and skills to compete at the national and international levels through technological and scientific development. The vision also sought to establish an effective and practical educational system that could identify and enhance a student’s abilities and capabilities through improved instructional processes (Mathis, 2010; Almogbel, 2015).

School Organization in KSA

According to Algarni and Male (2014), KSA’s MOE is responsible for managing the education system. The MOE represents the government and citizens in the formulation of policies, development of the curriculum, establishment and development of training programs, and evaluation of the performance of schools, teachers, leaders, and learners (Algarni & Male, 2014). Other jurisdictional bodies that are equal stakeholders in the management of the country’s educational system include the General Organization for Technical Education and Vocational Training and the Ministry of Higher Education. As their names suggest, each represents its area of jurisdiction within the country’s larger educational system. The MOE has made it an individual responsibility for all Saudi Arabians to pursue an education regardless of their gender, ability, and disability. Thus, both primary and secondary education is open and free to every Saudi citizen. However, boys and girls do not attend the same schools; instead, the leadership of each school is drawn from the same gender – for instance, a female head of a girls’ school and a male head of a boys’ schools. The organization ensured the standardization and centralization of Saudi Arabia’s education system.

According to KSA’s national curriculum (NC), public schools have two semesters for every academic year. A 45-minute-period timetable, planned and organized by school head teachers, complements the semesters (Algarni & Male, 2014). The head teachers also have the responsibility of monitoring the development and implementation of individual lesson plans by the rest of the teachers in line with the fulfillment of the NC. On the other hand, the teachers must be creative, inspiring, and motivating to the learners and must further embrace critical thinking during the implementation of their lesson plans. The Saudi education system is, therefore, curriculum-centered (Algarni & Male, 2014). However, overcrowding has made it difficult for leaders to cover their syllabuses within the stipulated time and to also personalize learning.

Educational Leadership in Saudi Arabia

There is a need to transform KSA’s education system from a learning-centered one to a learner-centered one. The current KSA education system overburdens school heads with the roles of both leader and manager. The learning-centered educational approach is, thus, adversely affecting the ability of learners and schools to be creative and competitive, respectively (Mathis, 2010). One research finding points at the decline in the national averages of performance levels in eighth-grade science and math in 2003 (Wiseman, Sadaawi, & Alromi, 2008). Reducing the roles of school heads is essential, including building an effective learning environment and bringing out others’ ability to be equal learner-centered leaders.

Schools are distinct units of KSA’s education system; hence, they are ideal grounds for effectiveness reforms (Alyami, 2014). In this case, leadership reforms should take the educational and social approach to influence learners’ motivation or competence. Almogbel (2015) proposed the school model of transformational leadership, which seeks to provide direction and motivate people through a shared vision in achieving sought-after goals. Also, the leader’s emotional intelligence should be stimulated to encourage subordinate teachers to take responsibility, beyond their competency and enthusiasm to promote a quality learning experience and performance in schools. Additionally, the educational transformational leadership model recommends reshaping the school’s culture and structure to improve the learning experience among students. According to Mathis (2010), transformational leadership will bring about cooperation between administrators and teachers in a manner that lifts each to “higher levels of commitment and dedication, motivation and morality.”

Policy Background and Context

According to Al Qarni (2010), Saudi Arabia lacks an official policy concerning gifted education. Instead, it has the “Education Policy of the Kingdom,” a ministerial provision to support gifted students in the general education system (The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Ministry of Education, 2008). The provision came into existence in 1969, with the implementation picking up in the 1990s. The provision has since undergone a series of improvements in line with the fulfillment of its components. Success, however, lies in cultivating mutual relationships between gifted students, their teachers, and societal values. The paper will, therefore, focus on the above-mentioned areas.

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’s Education Policy

The “Education Policy in the Kingdom” is a provision created by Saudi Arabia’s Ministry of Education recognizing gifted students and the need to support them in reaching their maximum potential (Al Qarni, 2010). The policy has the objective of equipping all students with the knowledge, values, and teachings of Islam and of further developing society both culturally and economically (The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Ministry of Education, 2008). “Gifted students” refers to those children with exceptional aptitude and capabilities or who are high performers in different spheres of social and academic life (National Association for Gifted Children, n.d.). The establishment of this provision in 1969 required that gifted students be properly identified from among average students and nurtured through efficient gifted programs and adequate support of these programs (through sufficient resource allocation) within the general education framework of the Kingdom. Additionally, the policy provision required that gifted students be identified and their individual talents nurtured through an individualized curriculum. The provision thus set a precedent regarding the attention that gifted and talented students should receive (Al Qarni, 2010).

History of the Gifted Policy

The general document of educational policy produced in 1969 included the following provision: “It is very important to discover and identify gifted learners among all Saudi young children and youth, nurture them by all means to unveil their potentials, and pay extra attention and efforts to provide them with special programs and appropriate opportunities that can be integrated easily into the Country’s Public Educational System” (Rule 57) (Al Qarni, 2010).

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has been supporting its education sector since its establishment in 1902. However, the first acknowledgment of gifted students among its education system and the need to care for them took place in 1969 following the enactment of the “Education Policy of the Kingdom.” The establishment of King Abdul Aziz’s City of Science and Technology between 1990 and 1996 was the first step in implementing the 1969 provision by the Ministry of Education. The project’s research approach was to identify and recommend appropriate care for gifted students. Also, it focused on increasing societal awareness of talented and gifted students and the need to support them. A second and subsequent program (Identify and Care Programs for Gifted Students) was established in 1998. Unlike the first, it was precise in identifying and supporting gifted students. Thus, the historic program is crucial because, through it, the Ministry of Education was able to fully establish special programs for gifted students (Alqefari, 2010).

Social Context of the Gifted Education Policy

In addition to the efforts to implement “The Education Policy of the Kingdom,” its success lies mainly in cultivating a mutual relationship between gifted educators, gifted students, and the society that the policy serves. The school setting is itself a social context. The mutual relationship will ensure that gifted students learn from each other and that they get the necessary assistance from their teachers. Saudi Arabia is an Islamic state – a fact that explains the specific directives of its education policy requiring all students to be accommodated in the education system without discrimination. However, it also requires that male and female students learn in separate learning environments in observance of the segregation principle of Islamic values (Aljughaiman & Grigorenko, 2013).

Gifted children are understood to possess special and unique learning abilities. Such children require accelerated learning environments and enriching instructions to challenge their skills and enable them to advance in their knowledge and individual capacities. In one research study that sought to establish talented students’ level of satisfaction with their gifted host centers, the findings revealed that only a few of them were satisfied with the teaching methods, the equipment and facilities, and the students’ relationships and enrichment activities (Al-Zoubi & Rahman, 2015). This demonstrates a universal laxity towards adequately supporting gifted children.

The Gifted Education Policy Agenda of Saudi Arabia

A policy agenda identifies and presents facts concerning a particular issue(s), problem(s), or subject(s) to policymakers such as government decision-makers or officials (Public policy, n.d.). The public’s and experts’ input constitute a significant portion of the policy agenda. It thus carries with it authority for its implementation, including information about the manner in which it will be funded and the responsibilities and obligations of all parties that are signatories to it. The policy paper, therefore, explores the ways in which the gifted education policy got on the agenda in Saudi Arabia.

How the Gifted Education Policy Got on the Agenda

As its name suggests, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is a monarchy (currently under King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud). It was founded in 1932. The country is located in the Arabian Peninsula and is the largest of all the rest located on the Peninsula. It is an Islamic state and has adopted the Shari’ah as its legal and constitutional framework. Following its establishment, KSA embarked on a development and industrialization agenda in the 1970s after oil was discovered in the Kingdom and its use – and, hence, demand for it – increased. The country’s economy is largely dependent on oil exports and further employs a high amount of foreign labor. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and the country’s population are about $25,961.81 and 28.83 million people, respectively, according to 2013 estimates from the World Bank and UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization), respectively (Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, n.d.; UNESCO, 2015). The population’s literacy rate is 94.7% (97% for males and 91.1% for females) according to 2015 estimates from the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (US Central Intelligence Agency, 2016). The factual information aims to contextualize the policy agenda on Saudi Arabia.

Saudi Arabia’s Ministry of Knowledge was established in 1951. It presided over the general education of the boy child in the Kingdom in all the Kingdom’s primary, preparatory, and high schools. On the other hand, the General Presidency for Girls’ Education presided over girls’ general education following its establishment in 1960. However, both boys and girls studied the same curriculum and even sat for similar national exams. In 2003, the Ministry of Knowledge was renamed the Ministry of Education; in 2015, it merged with the Ministry of Higher Education to form a single entity: the Ministry of Education, managed by the Minister of Education and responsible for implementing the government’s policy on education. The “Education Policy of the Kingdom” document of 1970 established the general education system and is founded on Islamic principles (Al Qarni, 2010). The policy also had to operate within a political environment. The policy document equally contained provisions for the establishment of gifted education programs. Religion initially influenced education and, hence, defined the learning objectives, content, teaching techniques, teachers, and learning environment (Al Qarni, 2010). For instance, learners were required to memorize the Quran and learn from mosques and had to be taught by sheiks, clergymen, or religious students. The sheiks and clergymen took care of the talented students – those with special aptitudes, capabilities, and learning abilities (Al-Zoubi & Rahman, 2015). Talented students, however, need special assistance to reach their maximum potential. Thus, they were educated through individualized learning programs and were further engaged in teaching slow-learning kids. In turn, teachers offered both financial and moral support to gifted students. Following the establishment of the Ministry of Knowledge, the government took upon itself the task of drafting the “Education Policy of the Kingdom.” Article 57 of the decree factored in the gifted education program, establishing the policy to identify, nurture, and provide supportive resources to gifted students within the frameworks of general education (Al Qarni, 2010). This was also in line with the developing economy, which required skilled labor to drive growth during the 1970s. The government used researchers to collect information that later guided the formulation of this policy. However, full implementation of the policy took nearly two decades owing to the slow development of items such as standardized tests to identify gifted learners, a flexible curriculum, and the expanded training of male and female teachers of gifted students (Al Qarni, 2010).

Formation of the Gifted Education Policy of Saudi Arabia

The gifted education policy of Saudi Arabia was established by the “Education Policy of the Kingdom” document. This document was the work of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’s (KSA) government through its Ministry of Knowledge as an acknowledgment of the “education for all” global slogan. The integration of Article 57 into the document mainly recognized the need for a gifted education program beyond a formal and general education system for the Kingdom (Al Qarni, 2010). The gifted education program’s function was to identify and nurture gifted students in the ways of Islamic culture, as KSA is an Islamic state. The ministry would also oversee the program’s financing. Gifted students have exceptional aptitudes and capabilities in academic and social life. They were, therefore, a great asset in helping the Kingdom pursue its social and economic development and agenda.

Intended Goals of the Policy

The gifted education program of KSA had different goals with respect to the achievement of its missions. One of the goals, as hinted above, was to identify and nurture the individual gift(s) of talented students. The identification process required that the Ministry of Education adopt standard testing methods to identify talented students within the general education system. Considering gifted students’ ability to score highly on IQ (Intelligent Quotient) tests as compared to their average counterparts, the administration of intelligence tests (as is the case in other countries) and other expert observation methods were the only means of precisely identifying gifted students. Upon their identification, a customized curriculum is administered to take them through their learning process.

The second goal of the gifted education program of Saudi Arabia was to provide support to the government and boost the country’s innovation ability by contributing inventive ideas. Gifted students have the psychological traits of creativeness and persistence; their motivation can inspire creative and intelligent capabilities and productivity (Subotnik, Olszewski-Kubilius, & Worrell, 2011). The program focuses on seeking these characteristics and cultivating them through the recommended gifted education curriculum for Saudi Arabia’s gifted students. The curriculum is supplemented with a variety of methods of provision of gifted education. Of particular interest is the enrichment process that ensures gifted students are taught about logical and creative thinking processes and creative problem-solving skills in detail. By focusing on these areas, the government can strengthen innovation and creativity among the youths who are the future of the country.

The third goal of KSA’s gifted program was to bring up a young generation that was talented and innovative in science and technology. This entailed increasing the enrollment of talented students into the gifted education program and enhancing their understanding of science-related subjects. The Ministry of Education and King Abdul Aziz City for Science and Technology Foundation emphasized the development of procedures to identify gifted students and the creation of enrichment programs in science and mathematics (Aljughaiman & Grigorenko, 2013). The identification procedures adopted Maryland’s definition of a gifted student and relied on teachers to nominate and recommend talented students based on their observations and performance. The enrollment targeted students as young as those in grades 4 to 6 and further established gender-specific learning centers for gifted students, in line with the Islamic values of educating boys and girls (Aljughaiman & Grigorenko, 2013). This way, the program could impart science and technology skills and knowledge for creative development to as many young, talented students as possible.

Policy Implementation

The endorsement of the “Education Policy in the Kingdom” document in 1969 was the first step in formalizing efforts to organize a gifted education program in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). The bill was intended to ensure that the long-abandoned gifted children of Saudi Arabia received due attention in terms of identifying them and their capabilities and empowering them to reach their potential. The goals were enshrined in Article 57 of the bill, which required that the program receive sufficient resources and be integrated into the general education system as a unique program. Articles 192 through 194 were more like an official directive acknowledging the goals of the newly established gifted education program of Saudi Arabia. It directed other state resources to support the program in establishing standard methods of identifying gifted students in the general education system and developing special teaching and incentive programs. This explains the gifted education policy of Saudi Arabia, including its goals (Al Qarni, 2010).

Accomplishing the Goals

The development of the gifted education program and its aims was a strategy on the part of Saudi Arabia to improve its literacy levels, provide education to all, and address its industrial development needs (Aichouni, et al., 2015). Implementing the provisions of the gifted education program was, therefore, a top priority. It required defining giftedness to distinguish between talented students within the context of the general education system. Implementing the goals in the gifted provisions also required developing standard methods like intelligence tests to identify and select talented students. For example, “gifted students” appointed (based on their academic performance) by teachers from the general education system were to be subjected to intelligence tests to further ascertain their eligibility for the gifted program. The gifted provisions also established Gifted Students Care Centers whose role was to enroll as many talented students as possible. The centers were to be equipped to offer the special education program and other means of psychological and social care. The activities set a precedent for the full implementation of the gifted provisions (Alqefari, 2010).

Accomplishing the goals of the gifted provisions also required that equal opportunities be provided to both gifted male students and gifted female students (Al Qarni, 2010). This way, the Ministry of Education could give students the opportunity to achieve their potential and to develop their talents in line with Islamic culture and values, considering that KSA is an Islamic state. The approach was to have gifted students fit into society as soon as they completed their study programs and were ready for the job market. The Royal also established the National Research Center for Giftedness and Creativity (NRCGC) to look into the quality of the country’s gifted program and recommend measures to improve it through research-based strategies. That objective was in line with the country’s political vision as far as a gifted education program was concerned and was intended to ensure that training programs were consistently reviewed for their relevance to helping students meet the demands of the job market while bringing out gifted students’ maximum potential. This way, the country ensured that the quality of the gifted education program continuously improved.

Entity Charged with Implementation of the Policy

Following the endorsement of the gifted education policy, the Ministry acted as the policy’s custodian. The Ministry of Education was responsible for overseeing the training of gifted education teachers, their employment, and their remuneration. It was also tasked with adopting a standard definition of “giftedness” and methods to identify gifted students. The Ministry of Education further provided oversight to ensure consistency and equality in the application of the gifted program (Al Qarni, 2010).

Policy Evaluation: Gifted Education Policy of Saudi Arabia

The gifted education policy of Saudi Arabia had goals to achieve following its establishment. These goals included identifying and nurturing as many talented students as possible from the country’s general education system. Secondly, it sought to raise a young generation that is not only talented in science and technology but also innovative in the same fields. This formed the basis of its third goal: to supply the country’s economy with the necessary skilled workforce. The goals were a responsibility of the Ministry of Education; it enforced the provisions of the policy and further allocated the required resources. The establishment of the policy took place at a time when Saudi Arabia was undergoing a period of industrialization and infrastructure development due to the investment capital coming from the proceeds of oil (Al Qarni, 2010). Developing the education sector was a crucial part of this industrialization process.

Whether the Policy Worked

According to Alawfi, (2016), significant efforts have been made to implement the Kingdom’s gifted education program. These efforts include adopting a standard definition of
“giftedness” and “gifted student.” They also include adopting standard methods and procedures to identify gifted students from the country’s general education population. The models have their origin in the US’s gifted education programs. This means that Saudi Arabia’s Ministry of Education has yet to develop unique models of identifying gifted students and assessing them for their eligibility for its gifted programs. According to Alawfi (2016), the adjustment of Saudi Arabia’s gifted education program to that of the US has made the local gifted education program inefficient. The Ministry’s act overlooked an important cultural aspect of Saudi Arabia: It is purely an Islamic state and, hence, founded on Islamic values and principles.

As stated earlier, the gifted student identification process is crucial to enrolling and meeting the goal of the gifted program to nurture gifted students and enable them to reach their maximum potential. However, teachers of gifted students still face challenges in identifying gifted students; this is hampering efforts to enroll as many gifted students as possible into the Kingdom’s gifted program. According to Aljuwaiber (2013), most gifted education teachers are undertrained to carry out IQ (Intelligent Quotient) tests or believe that distinguishing between average and talented students within the general education system is an act of discrimination. This raises questions about the methods that the Kingdom’s Ministry of Education uses to recruit teachers of gifted students. It reveals inefficiencies in the standard techniques used to identify the ideal characteristics of a gifted education teacher (Aljuwaiber, 2013). Thus, Saudi Arabia does not yet have well-trained gifted education teachers to fully support and facilitate the identification and teaching of gifted students.

In addition to the concerns about the characteristics of gifted education teachers, questions have been raised about their attitude and commitment to the gifted education students and programs. One research study conducted in 2012 with the goal of providing a recommendation for improvement in the gifted education program pointed at the slightly positive attitude of “current” gifted education teachers towards the gifted program and students (Al Garni, 2012). This means that gifted education teachers, besides being inadequately trained (as earlier stated), had little awareness of the needs of gifted students and the requirements of their education program. Attitude is crucial because it defines one’s interest in something. The findings of the research study suggest the existence of a slightly low commitment to supporting gifted students and their education programs among teachers and the Kingdom’s Ministry of Education. The ministry is responsible for supervising the training of teachers, including their recruitment.

The fact that Saudi Arabia has a general education system implies that the gifted education program runs parallel to the general education system. This is because the gifted education program of Saudi Arabia exists as a provision of the Education Policy of the Kingdom rather than as a separate and independent education policy. According to Alamer (2014), gifted students study the same curriculum that regular students do because of the integration of the gifted program into the general education system. The Islamic religious teaching style dominates the structure of Saudi Arabia’s general education curriculum. Instructions are delivered by way of lectures and students must memorize both theory and practical concepts as well as recall information during examinations. The memorization technique (unlike special weekend classes and summer enrichment programs) is inappropriate for gifted students because it does not inspire them to think through practical methods of learning that enable them to be innovative.

The assessment finally looks at the operation of gifted education centers in Saudi Arabia. Since the establishment of the gifted education program in the Kingdom, different gifted education centers have been established. The gifted care centers, like gifted schools, operate within the framework of the Education Policy of the Kingdom. The care centers, like the King Abdulaziz and His Companions Foundation for Giftedness and Creativity (MAHWIBA), have been active in supporting thinking by offering a specially structured curriculum to gifted students (Al-Shehri, Al-Zoubi, & Abdel Rahman, 2011). However, the care centers suffer from a shortage of skilled, gifted education teachers and from the poor coordination of their programs with other gifted schools (Alqefari, 2010). The shortage is a challenge to the full realization of the goals of the gifted education program of the Kingdom. Because of this, it is correct to say that the implementation of the gifted education policy of Saudi Arabia has not been satisfactory, in particular with respect to the challenges that call for remedies.

Policy Change and Recommendation

The policy and recommendation take into consideration the findings of different scholars with respect to the challenges that the gifted education programs of Saudi Arabia are facing. For instance, Alawfi (2016), in his study on the efficiency of the gifted education programs and curricula of Saudi Arabia, discovered that both the curricula and programs were insufficient in realizing their goals and objectives. The programs borrowed heavily from programs in Western countries like the US; hence, they were insensitive to Saudi Arabia’s educational history, as well as to Islamic culture and the Islamic context of the country’s education system. Alamer (2014), in his study that also focused on the challenges facing Saudi Arabia’s gifted education program, highlighted the following as areas of concern: the nature of the country’s education system and the attitude, knowledge, and experience of gifted education teachers with respect to talented students and the organization of the curriculum. Due to these challenges, Alawfi (2016) proposed the development of a gifted education program tailored to the country’s experience.

The gifted education policy of Saudi Arabia was crafted as a “mere” provision of the Kingdom’s general educational policies – hence, the need to separate it. Gifted students thus share a curriculum with the rest of the students and are taught by non-specialist teachers. This is despite the existence of special gifted education programs, like weekend and summer enrichment programs. The general education system should include a separate and independent gifted education policy. This new gifted education policy should establish independent schools and curricula for gifted students. The curricula should emphasize practical approaches to studying mathematics and science subjects contrary to current theoretical methods. Also, it should create training institutions and curricula for gifted education teachers; these institutions and curricula should be subject to periodic revision and should instruct teachers to be sensitive and responsive to the needs and requirements of gifted students. The policy change would help eliminate the “disorganized” state of the Kingdom’s current gifted education programs (Al-Zoubi & Rahman, 2015).

The amendments to the current “Education Policy of the Kingdom” document should propose a review of the methods currently used to identify talented students from among the other students in the general education system. The currently used methods are products of Western experiences (Alawfi, 2016). This also includes Saudi Arabia’s definition of “giftedness.” Both strategies underscore the uniqueness of Saudi Arabia and the US regarding culture, history, and education standards. While the definition and method of identifying talented students befit the scenario, it has slowed down efforts to enroll as many gifted students in the program as possible. The review should look at the historical context of the country’s education system and the ways in which it builds on Islamic culture, values, and principles. The outcome of the review should be adopted in the development of a standard definition of “giftedness” and the preparation of a curriculum that, in addition to emphasizing creativity, trains the talented student in the ways of Islam to best fit in and serve the country’s job market.

The KSA’s education system has its foundation in Islamic values and principles. It explains the separation of boys’ schools from girls’ schools. The focus of the school system in the NC, however, makes it difficult to realize its agenda in terms of leadership, competition, and development concerning schools and the country at large. Embracing educational transformational leadership will help bring about a shift from a learning-centered school system to a learner-centered one – hence, realizing the shared goals of inspiring and motivating learners.

Finally, Saudi Arabia’s Ministry of Education should invest more in research institutions to help carry out surveys investigating the effectiveness of the new gifted education programs and policy. The research institutions should focus on the new policy’s goals and objectives. They should also carry out surveys throughout the various phases of implementing the new gifted education policy to determine, for instance, whether the curriculum is suitable with respect to the job market and to gifted students’ needs, as well as whether gifted education teachers have been trained in a manner that enhances their attitude, knowledge, and levels of expertise in identifying and supporting talented students (Aljuwaiber, 2013; Al Garni, 2012). Following the outcomes, the research institutions should issue recommendations for improvement to the Ministry of Education. 

References

Aichouni, M., Touahmia, M., Al-Ghamdi, A., Ait-Messaoudene, N., Al-Hamali, R. M., Al-Ghonamy, A., & Al-Badawi, E. (2015). Creativity and innovation among gifted Saudi students-an empirical study. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Science, Vol. 193, 1371-1379.

Al Garni, A. A. (2012). Attitude of future special education teachers toward gifted students and their education. Doctor of Philosophy thesis, Centre for Learning Innovation, Faculty of Education, Queensland University of Technology, 1-223.

Al Qarni, M. A. (2010). Evaluation of provisions for gifted students in Saudi Arabia [PDF]. Retrieved from University of Wollongong, Faculty of Education: http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/3197

Alamer, S. M. (2014). Challenges facing gifted students in Saudi Arabia. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences, 4(24), 107-112.

Alawfi, A. M. (2016). Seeking a new integrated curriculum for gifted education in Saudi Arabia. International Journal of English Language, Literature, and Humanities, 4(4), 492-515.

Algarni, F., & Male, T. (2014). Leadership in Saudi Arabian public schools: Time for devolution? ISEA, 42(3), 19-33.

Aljughaiman, A. M., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2013). Growing up under pressure: The cultural and religious context of the Saudi system of gifted education. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 36(3), 307-322.

Aljuwaiber, D. (2013). An Investigation of Effective Teaching Practices for Gifted Students in Saudi Arabia. University of Wollongong, Australia: Unpublished Doctoral Thesis.

Almogbel, A. N. (2015). International education issues in Saudi Arabia’s public education curricula: An analytical study. Journal of International Education and Leadership, 5(1), 1-23.

Alqefari, A. (2010). A study of programmes for gifted students in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Doctor of Philosophy Thesis, Department of Social Sciences, Brunel University, 1-283.

Al-Shehri, M. A., Al-Zoubi, S., & Abdel Rahman, M. B. (2011). The effectiveness of gifted students centers in developing geometric thinking. International Research Journals, 2(11), 1676-1684.

Alyami, R. H. (2014). Educational reform in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Tatweer schools as a unit of development. Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal (LICEJ), 5(2), 1515-1524.

Al-Zoubi, S. M., & Rahman, M. S. (2015). Talented students’ satisfaction with the performance of gifted centers. Journal for the Education of Gifted Young Scientists, 4(1), 1-20.

Mathis, B. K. (2010). Educational leadership: A description of Saudi female principals in the eastern province of Saudi Arabia. Dissertation, Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education, 1-155.

Organisation of Islamic Cooperation: Fossil fuels and sustainable development [PDF]. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www3.canisius.edu/~diciccoj/MUN_2016_OIC_Fossil_Fuels.pdf

Subotnik, R. F., Olszewski-Kubilius, P., & Worrell, F. C. (2011). Rethinking giftedness and gifted education: A proposed direction borward based on psychological science. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 12(1), 3-54.

UNESCO. (2015, August 25). Learning neighborhood: Country profile: Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/uil/litbase/?menu=12&programme=210

US Central Intelligence Agency. (2016, February 26). The world factbook. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/premium-publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html

 Wiseman, A. A., Sadaawi, A., & Alromi, N. H. (2008). Education indicators and national development in Saudi Arabia. 3rd IEA International Research Conference, (pp. 1-20). Taipei City, Taiwan.

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Effective Special Education Practices

Samantha Ashley Forrest

Abstract

Special Education has provided parents and teachers with clarifications on how to get students’ needs met while providing a safe and nurturing learning environment. United States has proven the model for other countries to create laws to better service their struggling learners that have either not been diagnosed or in the process of being diagnosed. Education has been evolving to meet the new generation of students that are coming into our schools. Special Education needs to follow through and provide assistance to educators, parents, and the students they are servicing. Within this literature review, you will find explorations of different ways and methods in which/that Special Education can improve. These approaches address the areas of concern from student perspectives to teacher and parent views. The articles used to create this literature review has been conducted by researchers inside and outside the United States to seeking what is happening outside our bubbles. More insight on how the United States’ example can better itself.

Education is an ongoing continuum learning field that adapts and changes with times and its surroundings. Special Education has branched out of this to support diverse learners who have been mislabeled through the years through new effective assessments and placements. With an increase of new diagnoses, educators and parents have been left to fend for themselves to learn about new effective practices to assist learners. Both need to work as a team to collaborate the needs of learners’ strengths and weaknesses. Special Education still needs more improvement by assisting educators with best practices, parental involvement, social aspects, using technology to help struggling learners, and finding more information about the least restrictive environment that would best fit the needs of a student. All students are capable of learning to the best of their ability, it is our job to help them find their way, regardless of disability.

“The Effectiveness of a Multi Sensory Approach in Improving Letter-Sound Correspondences among Mild Intellectual Disabled Students in State of Kuwait” was conducted by Amr Moustafa and Mohd Zuri Ghani for the School of Educational Studies at the University of Science Malaysia. The purpose of the study was to examine the effectiveness of multi sensory approach for learning letters and sound with the use of the Orton Gillingham methods. Orton Gillingham (O&G) method teaches students how to read through the use of different senses, such as tactile, kinesthetic, visual, and auditory. The researchers focused on students who were diagnosed with a mild intellectual disability; which is considered the biggest community of intellectual disability in Kuwait. Their classification of mild intellectual disability (mild ID) are students who need to be competent in “applying the basic life skills, live independently, and be successfully employed (Moustafa, Amr; Ghani, Mohd Zuri, 2016).” They believe that “reading also helps mild ID students to be confident and more successful in life (Moustafa, Amr; Ghani, Mohd Zuri, 2016).” Reading can allow mild ID students to have a better quality of life, especially for those who are not literate.

The results of the study showed a significant increase of learning from the pre and posttests that were given to the twenty mild ID students (Moustafa, Amr; Ghani, Mohd Zuri, 2016). The researchers used the O&G method to teach English letter and sound recognition to non-English speaking students who spoke Arabic. The study proved that multi sensory approach is an effective learning practices to help struggling learners. They are considering conducting further studies in using multi sensory approach to teach students decoding skills in the Arabic language (Moustafa, Amr; Ghani, Mohd Zuri, 2016).

Educators can use multi sensory approaches to present the reading into unique and creative ways that would accommodate diverse types of learners. Using best practices can assist educators working with struggling learners to help them master their weakness. It is not a full proof procedure, however, when educators learn new approaches and implement them. It allows them to identify what methods work with which students—great for centers and small groups. Sharing within schools would help teachers learn how to educate parents on how they, too can help with learning process with their child. Effective strategies can create an ongoing community of learners to share ideas and methods that have worked with their students and learn about new methods as well.

In the article, “Parental Involvement in Prereferral Process: Implications for Schools” presents the importance of parents learning about the due process when their child is in the process of prereferral intervention (Chen, Wei-Bing; Gregory, Anne, 2011). The research that was conducted by Wei-Bing Chen and Anne Gregory for Hammill Institute on Disabilities in 2011. The research is still relevant with parents working with the parental involvement team (PIT) because struggling learners are being identified with new assessments that detect areas of concerns. Response to Intervention (RTI) is a team consisted of parents, teachers, administers, school psychologists, and school guidance counselor, developing a plan to help the struggling student success, wither it be in learning, social, and emotional needs.  This process uses data-driven intervention-based alternative tools to assess the student. This prevents an overrepresentation of a minority group from occurring. As stated, “Because of a general swelling in the number of students diagnosed as eligible for special education, and concerns regarding inappropriate referrals and overrepresentation of minorities such as Black students in special education (Chen, Wei-Bing; Gregory, Anne, 2011).” Disproportionate is preventable with people working together to focus on concerns rather than being biased to irrelevant information.

The research provided an insight into the parental involvement and special education services with using a five-point Likert scale to find the frequency of how many times parents are present in attending RTI meetings. The participants were more likely to be assigned or take on a role implementing interventions (Chen, Wei-Bing; Gregory, Anne, 2011). This correlates with parents working with educators to foster an effective learning environment. As a team that creates a plan of demonstrating a united front to guide the struggling student with reinforcements at school and home; a better structure knowing that parents know their role can make a difference on their child’s learning. More parents that are involved, means there is a higher chance that that child will succeed to the best of their ability.

Another idea to consider is the social aspect that typically occurs with students who have been diagnosed with a disability. “The Nature of Friendship Between Students With and Without Severe Disabilities” was conducted by Zachary Rossetti, PhD and Jennifer Keenan, MEd that explores the how friendship development between students with mild to severe disabilities and students that are typically developing (TD) in the inclusive classroom setting. The study reported that “fewer than 25% of students eligible under the categories of autism and intellectual disability spent time with friends outside school (Rossetti, Zachary; Keenan, Jennifer, 2018).” Of the 206 students with disabilities participants had diagnoses of Intellectually Disable, Down Syndrome, Autism Spectrum Disorder, Cerebral Palsy, and Retts Syndrome that were between the ages of seven to eighteen.

In the research, Rossetti and Keenan created a questionnaires and surveys that were used to categorize friendship into different definitions of friendship (Rossetti, Zachary; Keenan, Jennifer, 2018).  They selected TD students and students with disabilities into play scenarios that were between most structured to least structured. The scenarios were based on similar interests. In the more structured scenarios, students were met with assistance from a special education teacher and parents based on the number of students. The study showed that TD and students with disabilities were more likely to become friends without direct support from teachers and parents. Both would rather become friends based on the frequency times they have seen each other and in a natural environment.

Inclusion has been a recent trend in the United States were students with disabilities are being placed in the same learning environment as students without disabilities. Both students are receiving the same education but are given their own individual support based on accommodations needed for their disability. The purpose of inclusion is to prevent students with disabilities from feeling isolated from the TD students. This can foster friendship based on acceptance of diversity. Students of all kinds would benefit from seeing outside their own bubble and being introduced to different types of people. If the inclusion setting is done correctly, students would not know whom has a disability instead know they have two teachers they can go to for support without feeling embarrassed for seeking help.

When considering placements once a student has been diagnosed with a disability, parents and teachers sometimes do not communicate effectively to secure a nurturing environment. In the article, “Teacher-Parent Collaboration for an Inclusion Classroom: Success for Every Child” follows selected parents and teachers who are using collaboration for the success of students being placed in the inclusion setting in Malaysian’s public primary and secondary schools (Adams, Donnie; Harris, Alma; Jones, Michelle Suzette, 2016). The researchers looked into the United States as their model of Special Education laws to ideally establish a bridge between parents and teachers. The study focuses on using semi-structured interviews after selecting participants from their surveys done with a 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5) (Adams, Donnie; Harris, Alma; Jones, Michelle Suzette, 2016).

The participants in the study were willing to understand special educational needs, communicating in pertaining more information, perceived roles of implementation, and learning about expectations of each other’s roles with implementation (Adams, Donnie; Harris, Alma; Jones, Michelle Suzette, 2016). Similar to the United States’ parents, most parent participants are undereducated with only a secondary diploma of completion. Parents and teachers can work as a cohesive team to create an effective learning environment for students with or without disabilities. The teacher can provide information to the parents regarding areas of concerns; in which the parent will look into reinforcing material taught in school. This way both parties are on the same page. In this modern day and era, there are multiple ways of communication between teachers and parents. Just to name a few, there are electronic messaging, virtual conferences, traditional conferences in person, and phone calls. Finding one that works with both teams is the only hard part.

On another note, education has been leaning towards technology when teaching students. “Attitudes and Opinions of Special Education Candidates Teachers Regarding Digital Technology” looks into how attitudes and views of “students who will be special education teachers in the future regarding digital technology on the use in education (Ozdamli, 2017).” The study selected 275 students who are studying special education at Special Education teaching department of Near East University. A mixed method between qualitative and quantitative research were used to identify the participants’ opinions either positive or negative with the use of technology in the classroom. From the Likert scale, majority of participants believed “suitable technologies as tablets, interactive boards, telephones, and computers (Ozdamli, 2017).”

Technology done effective can be very successful in a student’s learning. There are several educational digital components that can be used in the class. Technology can be useful with providing students with reinforcements on topics that they are struggling with and the teacher can monitor it to inform their parents of areas of concern. Quick assessments of identifying weaknesses and strengths can be done to help teachers to establish differentiated instructions methods and group students based on similar strengths and weaknesses. Technology can also provide students with outlets of different methods on how to show that they have mastered a given standard or task instead of the traditional method of strictly paper based.

To tie everything together, Special Education has come a long with the creating laws protecting students with disabilities. There is still room for growth. Special Education needs to take in effective practices, parental involvement, social aspects, learning environments, and technology to explore more options with helping students succeed. With the usages of finding better methods of conducting School Support Team (SST) meetings and Eligibility for Services meetings, parents would feel more involved in the process of the meeting by understanding the educational lingo. Parents need more options of ways they can get educated of their rights and the rights of their child.  Parental Workshops offered by the school system would benefit them by providing them with additional information so that when to comes to SST meetings, parents can be more knowledgeable about what is going on and where the process is with their child.

Professional developments are highly recommended with teaching educators and staff members who work with parents learn proper ways to communicate with them and how to establish an effective parent-teacher team that can work together to help students to reach their potential. Establishing roles and expectations can even out the playing field that everyone is on the same page. Parent involvement can inform educators on different approaching methods to show them how the education system works.

Work Cited

Adams, Donnie; Harris, Alma; Jones, Michelle Suzette. (2016). Teacher-Parent Collaboration for an Inclusive Classroom: Success for Every Child. Malayisan Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 4(3), 58 – 72.

Chen, Wei-Bing; Gregory, Anne. (2011). Parental Involvement in the Prereferral Process: Implications for Schools. Remedial and Special Education, 447 – 457.

Moustafa, Amr; Ghani, Mohd Zuri. (2016). The Effectiveness of a Multi Sensory Approach in Improving Letter-Sound Correspondence among Mild Intellectual Disabled Students in State of Kuwait. Journal of Education and Practice, 7, 151 – 156.

Ozdamli, F. (2017). Attitudes and Opinions of Special Education Candidate Teachers Regarding Digital Technology. World Journal on Educational Technology: Current Issues, 191 – 200.

Rossetti, Zachary; Keenan, Jennifer. (2018). The Nature of Friendship Between Students With and Without Severe Disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 195 – 210.

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Parenting Children with Disabilities in Indian Families: A Review of the Literature

Kendra Michelle Hodgson

Abstract

This paper analyzes five studies pertaining to the experiences of children with disabilities and their parents in Indian families. The purpose of this paper is to highlight the need for more research into the lives of families of children with disabilities in developing countries. The focus on Indian families is deliberate as India is on track to become the most populated country in the world. However, most research is centered on families of children with disabilities in Western countries. The studies concentrated mainly on the stressors the parents faced due to caring for a child with a disability and their coping mechanisms. Religion is described as serving a dual purpose in their lives: as a source of anxiety and of comfort. The needs and expectations of families of children with disabilities vary across societies; thus, it is important that education and other services provided to children with disabilities are culturally sensitive.

 

Parenting Children with Disabilities in Indian Families:

A Review of the Literature

The experiences of children with disabilities and their parents in developing countries are underrepresented in research. “Few studies have examined how families in diverse contexts, especially in developing countries, make sense of their child’s disability, the type of stressors they encounter, or the resources they draw upon to adapt to the crisis” (John & Roblyer, 2017, p.326). India is currently the second most populous country in the world and is on track to become the most populated country in the world by 2024 (Chamie & Mirkin, 2017). However, India is a developing country and the services and supports available for children with disabilities are limited compared to developed countries like the United States.

The objective of this literature review is to assess and examine previous studies on the experiences of Indian parents of children with disabilities. Specifically, how culture and societal expectations affect the lives of children with disabilities and their parents, especially religion. Hinduism is the major religion in India and the concept of Karma plays a major role in how mothers of children with disabilities are perceived. Karma “suggests that human beings have to suffer the consequences of their deeds”, so society may view the disability as the karmic debt of the child or their family from a previous life (John & Roblyer, 2017, p.327).  

John and Roblyer (2017) conducted a study on the coping skills of mothers of children with an intellectual disability (ID) in India. The researchers were interested in the stressors the mothers face due to parenting a child with ID, as well as the resources available to them to help them deal with those stressors. The mothers were interviewed at the special education center where their children were enrolled. They were asked: (a) how they felt when their child was diagnosed with a disability, (b) how their feelings towards their child’s disability had changed over time and why, and (c) if they ever wondered why they had a child with a disability.

Initially, the mothers had a negative outlook when they learn that their child had ID. One mother expressed her “disappointment and grief over the fact that her daughter will never be able to do the things that other children do” (John & Roblyer, 2017, pp.329-330). The mothers attributed complications during pregnancy or after birth, medical negligence and even divine intervention (“God’s wish”) as possible reasons for their child having ID.

Stressors identified by the researchers during the interviews include the diagnosis (no prior experience with ID), marital and family conflicts (husbands leaving the family due to the diagnosis), the child’s behavior (excessive crying and hitting), and reproductive choices (fear of having more children with disabilities). The resources noted by the mothers via the interviews include personal (drawing strength from within), family level (help from fathers and extended family members with child rearing), and societal (special education center).

According to Zechella and Raval (2016), most of the research on parenting children with disabilities “focuses on White middle-class groups” in the United States and other Western (developed) countries (p. 1295). For this reason, this study focused on the experiences on Indian parents of children with disabilities who had immigrated to the United States. The participants were interviewed at home and the mothers and fathers were interviewed separately. The interview questions centered on (a) the parents’ sources of stress and support, (b) their perceptions of their child’s disability, (c) the impact of the disability on themselves and their family, (e) their immigration experiences, and (f) their perceptions of their child’s future.

One source of stress was the lack of acceptance from family and society. Their child with a disability to some was a “bad gift from God” to the family because of “a bad former life” (Zechella & Raval, 2016, p.1296). This is based on the Hindu concept of karma. Parents were also stressed due to the behavioral issues that manifested due to their child’s disability. Outsiders reactions ranged from wanting the parent to remove their child from public spaces to assuring the parent that the child would grow out of their disability. After the initial feelings of disbelief and grief, parents began to see their child’s disability from a positive perspective. “And as long as they learn and keep learning, that’s a good thing, they’re progressing, and that’s what you want” (Zechella & Raval, 2016, p.1300). Hinduism was mentioned as a source of support due to the idea in the religion that everyone has a purpose in life and the parents felt that their divine purpose in life was to raise a child with a disability.

One major reason that the parents decided to emigrate to the United States was due to the amount of resources available for children with disabilities. Some lamented the lack of family support, but felt it was worth sacrificing since their child had access to accommodations and modifications, such as wheelchair accessible ramps. A concern shared by a few parents was that after they die, their children may lack the support to continue to practice Hinduism, especially vegetarianism. A vegetarian diet is one of the ways some parents were able involve their children in Hindu customs. Overall, the parents expressed a desire to their child to achieve some level of independence.

John, Bailey, and Jones (2017) conducted research on the cultural context in which Indian parents were raising their children with disabilities. At the beginning, the parents blamed their own actions and/or medical negligence for their child’s disability. As they received more reliable information about their child’s diagnosis, the parents felt less anxious and less helpless about their child’s situation. Again, karma and god’s will/purpose played an important role in how parents viewed themselves and their child, as well as how the Indian community reacted to their child.

Some parents turned to alternative medicine such as Ayurveda, “a holistic approach with origins in ancient India that emphasizes restoring mind-body balance” or homeopathy, using natural substances to treat symptoms of their child’s disability (John et al., 2017, p.675). Like the mothers in (John & Roblyer, 2017), the parents in this study were grateful for the special school that their children attended. The teachers at “regular” schools compared the children with disabilities to typically developing children and determined that they did not fit in with the rest of the student body. Students with disabilities exclusion from the general education classroom in India is due to the “societal expectation of high student achievement, teachers’ negative attitudes towards inclusive education, and a rigid educational system” (John et al., 2017, p.671).

Another way parents found to cope with the stress of the child’s disability was to put their energy and efforts into helping their child develop speech and language skills, large motor skills such as walking, and academic skills such as letter and number recognition. With each milestone that their child reached, the parents felt more hopeful about their child’s future. They also noticed that their community became more accepting of their child. “Now, because of her daughter’s accomplishments in Special Olympics and in other local contests, her family and larger community accepted her daughter” (John et al., 2017, p.676).

The research conducted by Dickinson (2018) was focused on the education of children with disabilities in India and how cultural perceptions of disabilities impacted their educational opportunities. “In Western countries, it is common for therapeutic medical services, such as occupational, speech, and physical therapy, to be offered through the public educational system itself” (Dickinson, 2018, p.72). However, in India, these services were provided in separate special schools or at centers located far from the student’s home. The stigma of having a child with a disability is so great that some families do not even apply to the government for disability benefits. Despite the difficulty in locating appropriate educational and medical services for their child, “Indian parents of children with disabilities place a high importance on educating their children, even at a great expense of their own time” (Dickinson, 2018, p.74).

The participants in this study were parents of children with disabilities who attended the same school. The school was specifically for children with disabilities and provided services such as an early intervention center, a center for autism, and vocational training. Eight parents, six mothers and two fathers, were asked to take ten photographs to illustrate what is life like as a parent of a child with a disability. The children ranged in age from 9 to 17 years.

During the interview, the researcher asked the parents questions about the photographs they had taken. Most of the pictures involved the child going about their daily routine. In one picture, a boy is feeding himself, which his father explained he was unable to do before. Another parent incorporated religious activities and occupational therapy activities by having the child practice lighting a lamp with matches. To document the social progress of her daughter, a mother took a picture of her daughter passing out the snack at school to her peers. This study highlights the “importance of providing educational opportunities to all children regardless of the child’s current abilities” (Dickinson, 2018, p.78).

It is important to discuss disabilities within the context of sociocultural beliefs and behaviors, not only because of how a disability is perceived, but also how its symptoms are treated, “some of which are uncommon in Western countries such as Homeopathy, Ayurved, Siddha (traditional medicine), and Accupressure” (John & Montgomery, 2016, p.295). The researchers wanted to study how parents of children with disabilities in India viewed the disability of their child. John and Montgomery (2016) used three disability models based on the fact that a disability is usually approached from three perspectives: (a) individual/medical, (b) social, and (c) religious. The individual/medical model refers to the idea that a disability is due to medical negligence, while the social model focuses on building up a child’s self-worth. The religious model attributes the disability to some divine purpose.

As with other studies on this topic, the parents were recruited through the special school that their children with disabilities attended. The parents were given statements that correlated to the three disability models and asked to evaluate the statement using the terms agree, disagree, or neutral. Then, they chose three statements that they strongly agreed with and three statements that strongly disagreed with.

Results showed that parents found religion to either help or hinder their wellbeing as the religious model is used to “construct both adaptive and maladaptive belief patterns” (John & Montgomery, 2016, p.304). The underlying theme of the social model as it relates to the participants is that they had a vision of “creating a world in which individuals with disabilities can lead a life of respect and dignity” (John & Montgomery, 2016, p.305). The parents’ perspective on the individual/model showed their dissatisfaction with the current system to educate their children and take care of their medical needs. All three models emphasized the “importance of parental acceptance” and “the importance of assessment and identifying the right program” for their child (John & Montgomery, 2016, p.305).

In conclusion, it is important to research the experiences of children with disabilities and their families in developing countries. The needs of children with disabilities, the challenges that their parents face, and the resources available in their community vary across cultures and societies. More studies are needed on the lives of children with disabilities and their parents in India in order to develop and provide culturally sensitive supports and services.

References

Chamie, J., & Mirkin, B. (2017, August 10). India’s population: Becoming number one. Retrieved from yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/indias-population-becoming-number-one

Dickinson, R. (2018). Parenting a child with disabilities: The intersection of education and cultural perceptions in southern india. Journal of Human Rights and Social Work, 3(2), 72-80. 

John, A., Bailey, L. E., & Jones, J. L. (2017). Culture and context: exploring attributions and caregiving approaches of parents of children with an intellectual disability in urban India. Child & Family Social Work22(2), 670–679.

John, A., & Montgomery, D. (2016). Parental explanatory models of child’s intellectual disability: A Q methodology study. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 63(3), 293-308. 

John, A., & Zapata Roblyer, M. (2017). Mothers parenting a child with intellectual disability in urban india: An application of the stress and resilience framework. Intellectual & Developmental Disabilities55(5), 325–337.

Zechella, A., & Raval, V. (2016). Parenting Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities in Asian Indian Families in the United States. Journal of Child & Family Studies25(4), 1295–1309.

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Improving Communication Among Teachers and Parents

Maria Ramirez

Over the past 40 years, the field of Special Education has experienced significant changes. Students with disabilities and their families are experiencing drastic changes when it comes to the frequency, quality, and intensity of supports coming from the schools. As documented in research, in order to establish and maintain quality partnerships with families, the parents must make decisions together with educators in order to help their children. However, from personal experiences as an educator, creating successful relationships with parents is essential for the success of students with special needs. According to Collier, Keefe, and Hirrel (2015), teachers play a significant role in parents’ decisions to become involved in their children’s education.

With the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) parent involvement has increased since the act mandates parent participation in the education of their children with disabilities. However, schools will likely struggle with the lack of parent involvement for many reasons. Collaboration and communication between parents and educators have played a critical role in achieving student success. Research has suggested that teachers collaborating with parents promotes parent involvement which often leads to student success (Collier, Keefe, and Hirrel, 2015). Given that the parents of children with disabilities often face many challenges, communication becomes essential and their input makes a difference for developing positive and effective relationships.

The implementation of programs to prepare teachers to impact the nature of collaboration with parents it is crucial. “Teacher-training programs that included reflective and international teaching practices enhanced teachers’ willingness to develop school-community collaboration” (Collier, Keefe, and Hirrel, 2015 p.120). Moreover, Collier et al., described a program called Families as Faculty in which they implemented direct interaction with families of children with disabilities, and the impact that this program had on teaching practices after graduation. The purpose of the program was to increase educators’ understanding of home-school relationships and to facilitate the understanding of what Least Restricted Environment (LRE) meant, as well as to prepare educators to recognize that all families are different, and thus have diverse values, beliefs, and challenges.

With the implementation of this program, “teacher’s responses have suggested that listening to families can potentially provide lessons that cannot be easily learned from a lecture or textbook” (Collier, Keefe, and Hirrel, 2015 p.129). They also expressed how important it was to hear the stories that families revealed to them in regards to challenges that families face, and what their perspectives are. This allowed the teachers to learn about the lives of their students and to better understand them, as well as to provide them with the best experiences needed for their success. The process of building school-community partnership is dynamic according to the authors. It enhances the planning and implementation of the goals and objectives of students’ Individualized Education Programs (IEPs), based on which the students are placed in the LRE, and the parents are part of the decision-making process. Additionally, the program offers teachers the opportunity for expanding their awareness, understanding, and knowledge of the process of building and maintaining partnerships with parents and families. (Collier, Keefe, and Hirrel, 2015).

Mareoiu (2016) claims that in addition to collaboration opportunities, parents are a necessary part of the evaluation process. Even though, parents of children with disabilities are involved in the request or consent to the referral for evaluation, it is important that they learn “critical information related to the needs of their children. For example, ways in which the special education system functions, rights and responsibilities of stakeholders, strategies to advocate, and ways in which special education services can provide with support.” (Mereoiu, Abercrombie, and Murray, 2016, must add page number for direct quotes). Studies indicate that sometimes parents are not fully aware of the terms or issues discussed in the IEP meetings. However, in most situations professionals are the actual decision-makers, which often leads to the families becoming frustrated and angry towards the school. Factually, parents’ opinions are often overlooked because they may not know the rules and lingo of special education and how the system works. For this reason, it is crucial that effective communication among teachers and parents occur for the benefit of the child. Barriers in collaboration and negative outcomes for families and students can be avoided when professionals create opportunities for authentic communication with families. “In parents’ view communication is a key in stablishing trust-based relationships.” (Mareoiu, Abercrombie, and Murray, 2016 p.14)

According to Mereoiu, Abercrombie, and Murray (2016), the identification of highly effective practices, especially in preparing teachers to collaborate with families and other professionals, is still emerging. The development of interventions Mereoiu et al. explored was designed to resolve the quality of relationships, and the values driving decisions and actions in special education in shaping collaboration. During the study, the special education teacher was paired up with a parent of a child with disabilities for six months, in which the team had to attend the professional development sessions. During this time, they had to share information with the district identifying goals to improve collaboration between schools and families, and reflection the outcome to report it. Some of the topics addressed were: (a) decision making process, (b) advocacy, (c) parenting, and (d) respect and trust as a way of stablishing partnerships for student outcomes. The study described the data collected before and after the completion of the professional development intervention. Results stated that the participants felt that the training helped to improve the relationship with special education teachers as well as with teachers of different subject areas. (Mereoiu, Abercrombie, and Murray, 2016).

Mereoiue al. (2016), found that the biggest challenge was giving parents time to accept the fact that their child had a disability. For this reason, giving time to understand it and to deal with it before you can explain the process and strategies to help them is key. Additionally, the results of this study indicated that families need support to understand and navigate the special education system and how it works. Therefore, the model of intervention was designed to meet specific needs in which educators and families had the opportunity to work together to recognize significant challenges, and both groups agreed about the benefits of collaboration to increase students’ success. “More specifically, parents felt that the training allowed teachers to access parent perspectives and at the same time, parents realized that the teachers do in fact care and want to help families and students with disabilities.” (Mereoiu, Abercrombie, and Murray, 2016 p.15). At the completion of the training, parents shared how networking made a change in their communication with the school, based on this, teachers can implement many ways of communicating with parents. For example, the use of email, weekly progress reports, remind apps., websites, google calendar, and skype for virtual conferences (which is a useful tool to meet with parents who have difficulties making it in person to meetings). With the implementation of these tools, parents will have more access to information and interactions that will likely validate their experiences in their child’s life. While the results of the study reinforced professionals’ beliefs that collaboration is critical to understand the families’ needs, several limitations exist, and future research is needed.

According to Valle (2011), understanding the race, class, and culture of parents is important when communicating with them, to facilitate techniques in order to help their children at home. While these factors are identified within the demographic information provided to the school system, it has not been used for data analysis. This study states that an implicit assumption within the literature reviewed says that parents regardless of background share the same understanding and response to disability as the public schools’ system in America (Valle, 2011, ). However, it remains inconclusive whether or not the information provided is true. Moreover, Valle (2011) posits that the cultural diversity of families matters greatly within special education; and that the equity and advocacy expectation for parents under the law contradict professional status, and how they see values held by many families from culturally diverse backgrounds. For this reasons, additional studies are needed on the role of culture and social class within the context of   home to school collaboration. Further research can give confidence to parents of students with special needs as they hope to have a more equitable place at the table during meetings, and have a louder voice. It can also allow parents to tell their stories to offer firsthand accounts of the consequences of disability related practices. In addition, parents can explain from their unique perspectives, about the profound experiences and the challenges of parenting a child with learning disabilities (Valle, 2011).

A similar study was conducted in Canada, designed to examine the different aspects of parenting children with disabilities, and to offer parental perceptions of their children’s education. Notably, few studies exist in which parents of children with specific disabilities are compared. Despite the fact that this study took place in another country, findings were remarkably similar. When asked, the majority of parents reported dissatisfaction with their child’s education. This is likely due to the lack of knowledge that teachers have about the nature of special education, especially with children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and effective interventions. Parental input is key to the provision of an appropriate education for their children. In addition, “it was reported that parents felt that awareness by school staff of a child’s diagnosis affected how that child was treated at school by both peers and staff” (Star & Foy, 2010 p.208). Unlike the United States, Canada’s education is a provincial matter and there are no federal laws overseeing special education; consequently, every providence has its own law. There has been a drastic increase in the number of children with ASD for the past 15 years. Just like in the United States, the general classroom is considered the LRE in Canada. Results of the study demonstrated that collaboration between parents and school personnel were themes that continually emerged across all questions (Star & Foy, 2010).

Schultz, Able, Sreckovic, and White (2016) focused on the importance of positive parent-professional collaboration for students to be successful. With the increased number of children with ASD in inclusive classrooms, the need for collaboration is essential. Accordingly, as documented by Shultz et al., teachers stressed the need for parental collaboration and advocacy, as well as the importance of providing strategies to parents to teach their children to be self-advocates, and the roles parents can play in supporting their children. The teachers’ perceptions ranged from dealing with parents who were over involved or under involved. In addition, teachers felt that lack of advocacy or involvement had to do with parents struggling with the acceptance of their child’s disability (Schultz, Able, Sreckovic, and White 2016).

In conclusion, the studies reviewed generally agreed that parent and teacher collaboration is essential for students to be successful. A greater understanding and appreciation of parent-professional partnership can bring better outcomes for children with ASD and other disabilities in school. Moreover, giving the parents the opportunity to tell their stories as they share their personal experiences, may have an impact on how the teachers can help the students succeed. Teachers can also help parents learn and navigate the special education system so that parents can learn how to advocate for their children. Although educational policy and intervention are usually determined by the school personnel, schools should take parents views into consideration for the benefit of the child. Despite the fact that education has come a long way towards meeting the needs of students with disabilities, further research is necessary to improve the related outcomes.

References

Collier, M., Keefe, E. B., & Hirrel, L. A. (2015). Preparing Special Education Teachers to Collaborate with Families. School Community Journal, 25(1), 117–136. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.fiu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ1066210&site=eds-live

Mereoiu, M., Abercrombie, S., & Murray, M. (2016). One Step Closer: Connecting Parents and Teachers for Improved Student Outcomes. Cogent Education, 3(1). Retrieved from http://ezproxy.fiu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ1138256&site=eds-live

Schultz, T. R. 1. chulttr@uww. ed., Sreckovic, M. A.., Able, H., & White, T. (2016). Parent-Teacher Collaboration: Teacher Perceptions of What is Needed to Support Students with ASD in the Inclusive Classroom. Education & Training in Autism & Developmental Disabilities, 51(4), 344–354. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.fiu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eue&AN=119504545&site=eds-live

Starr, E. M., & Foy, J. B. (2012). In Parents’ Voices: The Education of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Remedial and Special Education, 33(4), 207–216. Retrieved from http://http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ976434&site=eds-live

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Buzz from the Hub

All articles below can be accessed through the following link:

https://www.parentcenterhub.org/buzz-feb2019-issue1/

https://www.parentcenterhub.org/buzz-jan2019-issue1/

Video | One Family’s Story
In this nearly 4-minute video, a mother tells her compelling story about a family living with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders.

You Are Not Alone: Toolkit for Parents of Teens with Epilepsy
This toolkit includes an easy-to-read introduction (with a link to a PDF of a 2-page brochure you can download and share with families), a Parent’s Guide, a Facilitator’s Guide, and a Resource Guide.

The Public Health Image Library | Photos, Illustrations, and Videos
Much of the information critical to the communication of public health messages is pictorial rather than text-based. Created by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the PHIL offers an organized electronic gateway to CDC’s pictures that others may use in their health messaging. The collections most likely to be useful to Parent Centers as conveyors of health-related information are: everyday activities, health behaviors, natural disasters, and developmental milestones.

Who’s New in Your Community? Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the U.S.
How often does your Parent Center or community agency work with newly arrived families to the US? This Spotlight offers data available about the nearly 44 million immigrants living in the United States in 2016. Use the menu partway down the page to find about more about: current and historical numbers of immigrants; demographic, educational, and linguistic characteristics of recent immigrants; newcomers from Mexico; health insurance coverage; workforce characteristics; children with immigrant parents; refugees and asylum seekers; and more.

Also explore the Migration Information Source pages (under Recent Articles, click on “U.S. Spotlight”) to drill down to specific populations of immigrants, including those from the Caribbean Islands, South America, Central America, Vietnam, India, China, and Bangladesh.

The OSEP English to Spanish Translation Glossary is Back!
This great resource went missing for a while, but we found it! It provides Parent Centers and others with the Spanish translations of  over 200 terms used in Part B of IDEA (special education), as well as over 200 terms used in Part C (early intervention).

Paving the Way: Parent Tips for Supporting Success in High School and Beyond
The road to adulthood for youth with disabilities is filled with opportunity, and parents play a key role. This web page has multiple branches where parents can explore topics such as: communication and teamwork, study habits and course selection, celebration and support, and preparing for the future.

Youth in Action! – Serving on Decision-Making Boards
This 2018 tip sheet from NCWD/Youth speaks directly to youth with disabilities. It describes what decision-making boards are and gives examples, discusses why youth should serve on such boards, and offers suggestions for how to get started.

YES! Youth Employment Solutions Center
Check out the list of resources at the link above, all intended to support competitive, integrated employment outcomes for transition-aged youth and young adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities.

Benefits for Children with Disabilities
The Social Security Administration has a 2019 version of its pamphlet explaining the benefits availability to eligible children with disabilities (under the age of 18): SSI, SSDI, health insurance, Medicaid and Medicare, employment support programs, and more, including how to apply. There’s also a 2018 version of the pamphlet in Spanish.

How Data Empowers Parents
When parents have the right information to make decisions, students excel. But often the only information parents receive about their child’s education is through report cards and the occasional parent teacher conference. Better information empowers parents to provide better support, make better decisions, and be better advocates.

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Acknowledgements

Portions of this or previous month’s NASET’s Special Educator e-Journal were excerpted from:

  • Center for Parent Information and Resources
  • Committee on Education and the Workforce
  • FirstGov.gov-The Official U.S. Government Web Portal
  • Journal of the American Academy of Special Education Professionals (JAASEP)
  • National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability for Youth
  • National Institute of Health
  • National Organization on Disability
  • Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
  • U.S. Department of Education
  • U.S. Department of Education-The Achiever
  • U.S. Department of Education-The Education Innovator
  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
  • U.S. Department of Labor
  • U.S. Food and Drug Administration
  • U.S. Office of Special Education

    The National Association of Special Education Teachers (NASET) thanks all of the above for the information provided for this or prior editions of the Special Educator e-Journal


    Download a PDF Version of This e-Journal

    To View or Download a PDF file for this issue of the Special Educator e-Journal  –  CLICK HERE

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