Decemeber 2019 – Special Educator e-Journal

Table of Contents

• Special Education Legal Alert. By Perry A. Zirkel
• Buzz from the Hub
• Book Review: Go See the Principal: True Tales from the School Trenches. By Miranda Freites
• Universal Design for Learning: Assistive Technology. By Rebecca Fields & Marissa Pardo
• Post-School Transition Strategies and Services for Students with Disabilities. By Lauren Bacus
• Graduation Rates Are Increasing, but Students with Special Education Needs Are Still in Peril. By Christine Powell
• Critical Analysis: Strength-Based Approaches for Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disabilities. By Natasha Quesada
• The Effect of Music Intervention on the Attention Span of Students with Disabilities. By Jovana Maximilien
• Book Review:  The Mindful School Transforming School Culture through Mindfulness and Compassion. By: Amairany Paniagua
• Book Review: The Power of Positive Leadership. By Karina Constantine
• Acknowledgements

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Special Education Legal Alert

By Perry A. Zirkel

© November 2019

This month’s alert summarizes an unpublished federal district court decision that illustrates various current issues, including the possible child find-RTI connection and a published federal appeals court decision that illustrated the generally nondramatic impact of Endrew F.  These various issues are further explained and updated in various articles listed in the “Publications” section of perryzirkel.com.

In Avaras v. Clarkstown Central School District (2018), a federal district court in New York addressed a child find claim in the context of response to intervention (RTI) plus subsequent IEP FAPE and tuition reimbursement claims.  The basic factual sequence was: kgn – RTI Tier 2 in reading; gr. 1 – RTI Tier 3 in reading and math plus IEE diagnosis of dyslexia, with parental request in May and district evaluation in June, resulting in eligibility and IEP for SLD for last few days of the school year; gr. 2 – unilateral placement in private school and no IEP review and proposal; and gr. 3 – district revised and proposed IEP, which included a self-contained class for language arts, resource room for 30 minutes per day, and consultant teacher services for 30 minutes per week.
For the child find claim, the court ruled that “the duty to evaluate, at the very least, was triggered 8 weeks after [the child] started Tier 3 services in first grade.”  Since the district did not initiate the evaluation within a reasonable time thereafter and the evaluation revealed his eligibility, the court found that this procedural violation impeded the child’s right to FAPE.	The court apparently based its specific calculation on the fact that the district’s RTI program had 8-week cycles.  However, reasonable adjudicators can and do reach different conclusions based on these factual features.  For example, both the hearing officer and the review officer had rejected the parents child find claim in this case.  The general trend is infrequent case and largely pro-district rulings.
For the next year, which was gr. 2, the court ruled that the district denied FAPE because it did not have an IEP in place at the start of the year, concluding that the parents’ unilateral placement did not excuse the district’s continuing obligation to “provide FAPE”—i.e., propose annual IEPs.	The court deftly ducked the nuances of (a) the parent’s consent for initial services, which in this case was an agreement for special education but not for the district’s initially IEP proposals, and (b) the district’s belated IEP for grade 2, which without review merely amended the previous IEP to show the unilateral placement.
For gr. 3, the court concluded that the proposed IEP provided FAPE in the LRE, finding the interaction with nondisabled students at an appropriately integrated level.	The court attributed the separable IEP problem of lack of updated information from the private school to the parents’ failure to provide the requisite consent for this information.
For the remedy, the court awarded tuition reimbursement for the gr. 2 school year, finding that the private placement met the applicable substantive standard and that the equities supported this period.	Oddly, the court did not award compensatory education for the child find violation in grade 1.  Perhaps the parents did not sufficiently raise this remedy as an issue separable from tuition reimbursement.
The court rejected the parents’ claims (a) for money damages (as unavailable under the IDEA), (b) against the state education department (for lack of systematic violations); and (c) under Sec. 504/ADA (for lack of gross misjudgment or deliberate indifference).	These various additional rulings illustrate the increasing “spaghetti strategy” (throwing multiple claims against the way in hopes that something sticks) of special education litigants and the prevailing judicial standards for each of these claims.

In Johnson v. Boston Public Schools (2018), the First Circuit Court of Appeals addressed various parental claims arising from the successive IEPs for an elementary school student who had a substantial hearing impairment despite a cochlear implant.  The student’s initial IEPs included instruction in both sign-supported spoken English and American sign language (ASL) per the recommendations of his evaluations.  Despite the child’s reported progress, the district agreed to change his next IEP to exclude ASL based on his mother’s insistence.  His subsequent progress was negatively affected by his mother’s intransigent opposition first to the use of ASL and, later, sign supported English; her lack of cooperation with district and clinical personnel; and the student’s inconsistent use of the cochlear processor.  After additional evaluations, the district proposed to increase the services, but the parent remained dissatisfied and filed for a due process hearing.  As part of settlement negotiations, the district agreed to place the student in a private school for students with hearing impairments.  However, the settlement fell apart during the prehearing conference, and the impartial hearing officer (IHO) subsequently issued a decision in the district’s favor.  After the federal district court affirmed the IHO’s decision, the parent appealed to the First Circuit Court of Appeals, which encompasses Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Rhode Island.
First, the parent claimed that the district court had erred by ruling that she had waived her “mainstreaming” claim.  The appellate court readily rejected the parent’s claim, pointing out at the due process hearing she sought placement in a private school for hearing impaired students.	Perhaps attributable to the parent proceeding pro se (i.e., without any attorney) at the due process hearing, she failed to clearly preserve a mainstreaming claim via her complaint statement, the prehearing conference, and opening arguments, which amounted to waiver..
Second, she raised various challenges to the conduct of the impartial hearing officer (IHO).  The appellate court ruled that (1) the IHO’s reliance on the mother’s statements during the prehearing conference did not violate the IDEA; and (2) the IHO’s consideration of these statements, the IHO’s warning that proceeding with the hearing was a gamble, and the IHO’s adverse assessment of the parent’s credibility did not violate the impartiality requirement of the IDEA.	(1) The Rules of Evidence do not apply to due process hearings unless state law specifies otherwise, and settlement discussions during the prehearing conference do not transform the IHO to a mediator unless the parties agree otherwise.  (2) These various instances of conduct, although arguable as a matter of best practice, did not fail the IDEA test for IHO impartiality, which is actual—not the appearance of—bias.
Finally and most significantly, the parent claimed that the Supreme Court’s decision in Endrew F. significantly raised the bar for substantive FAPE.  She argued that the adequacy of the district’s challenged  IEPs should be remanded to the IHO level for reconsideration, since the IHO’s and district court’s FAPE rulings were based on the pre-Endrew F. standard.  The First Circuit affirmed rather than remanded the previous substantive FAPE rulings, concluding that the jurisdiction’s prior standard of meaningful benefit comported with Endrew’s F.’s formulation of being “reasonably calculated to enable [the] child to make progress appropriate in light of the child’s circumstances.”  The court pointed to the similarity of the educational methodologies between the district’s original placement and the subsequent temporary private placement, which both yielded sufficient progress under the circumstances.	Notably, in response to the parent’s reliance on the undisputed findings that the child’s progress was “slow” and that his linguistic skills were “significantly delayed,” the court emphasized the importance of the individual circumstances.  In this case, the court identified as examples of relevant circumstances for this child “his starting point and [the parent’s] own resistance to educating him. in ASL and spoken English.”  Thus, neither slow progress nor more rapid progress is generalizable as the sine qua non of Endrew F. in light of its individualized, ad hoc consideration of the substantive appropriateness of IEPs.  Of course, this standard is the legal minimum, and there is good reason for IEP teams to aspire to the higher bar of best practice norms as a matter of partnership with parents and adherence to professional ethics.

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Buzz from the Hub

All articles below can be accessed through the following links:

https://www.parentcenterhub.org/buzz-oct2019-issue2/

https://www.parentcenterhub.org/buzz-nov2019-issue1/

Guardianship: Clashing Views from Self-Advocates and Family Leaders
This blog post from Rylin Rodgers at the Association of University Centers on Disabilities (AUCD) readily acknowledges that passions are likely to flare and clash when the topic of guardianship comes up. She focuses her blog on the range of options that exist to provide support without the stripping of rights that guardianship represents–in particular, the role that supported decision-making can play.

Seizing the Opportunity: Educating Students with Disabilities in Charter Schools
This report by the Center on Reinventing Public Education (CRPE) and the National Center for Special Education in Charter Schools (NCSECS) examines how some charter schools are improving outcomes for students with disabilities and what factors influence their ability to do so. It offers lessons for all schools working to improve how we educate students with disabilities.

Bullying and Harassment of Students with Disabilities: Top 10 Facts that Parents, Educators, and Students Should Know
This article in the current issue of eParent addresses the worrisome reality of bullying of children with disabilities. A companion article focuses on the bullying of youth and those with special health care needs, and offers proactive strategies to support these students and prevent their bullying at school.

Understood’s Fact Sheets
Understood.org has redesigned 6 of its fact sheets, paring them down to 1 page, with wonderfully simple reading levels and layouts. The fact sheets in question are: ADHD, Dyslexia, Dyscalculia, Slow Processing Speed, Developmental Coordination Disorder, and Sensory Processing Issues.

Videos | High-Leverage Practices in Special Education
What do high-leverage practices (HLPs) look like in use? CEC’s new video series on the subject can support teacher educators and teachers with concrete, easy-to-access examples of HLPs in action, in real classrooms, with real students. Definitely a great new resource to share with schools!

Active Listening and Effective Questioning
When a family or professional first contacts your Center, you have to gather information about why. What issue or concern brings them to you? What type of help are they looking for? While many newcomers can answer insightfully, many others are not sure what to ask or what kind of assistance is needed. Often, you have to tease this information out of them, which is where skillful listening and questioning come in. This 8-page PDF provides lots of information about both, as well as useful examples.

Become a Better Listener: Active Listening
This article includes a lot of information immediately useful to Parent Center staff working directly with families. Individual sections focus on 13 steps to better active listening skills, 7 communication blockers, 5 simple conversation courtesies, and the art of questioning.

Interpersonal Skills
This article gives an overview of interpersonal skills and discusses how you can strengthen yours. The article explores listening and speaking skills in particular and looks at barriers to effective interpersonal communication. There’s a free self-assessment tool that can give you valuable feedback on the quality of your own listening skills, verbal communication, emotional intelligence, and ability to work in groups.

School-Age Family Engagement | Online Module
This online, 5-part module is all about how family-centered practice, strong family engagement, and effective communication contribute to high-quality school-age programs. The module includes sections that focus on strategies for working with and strengthening families of children with special needs, military families, and families facing challenges.

We Have to Talk: A Step-By-Step Checklist for Difficult Conversations
This article gives a brief synopsis of best practice strategies: a checklist of action items to think about before going into a difficult conversation; some useful concepts to practice during the conversation; and some tips and suggestions to help you stay focused and flowing in general, including possible conversation openings.

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Post-School Transition Strategies and Services for Students with Disabilities

By Lauren Bacus

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to explore current research regarding the various perspectives and practices of implementing transition planning before, during, and after individuals with disabilities exiting the public education school system. To examine current research on this topic, four articles were selected to analyze perspectives of educators and parents regarding transition planning and the actual implementation of transition plans. The articles found through Florida International University’s online library include: Making Community Connections: Educator Perspectives on Transition Planning for Students with Intellectual Disabilities, Transition Planning for Students with Intellectual Disability, Autism, or Other Disabilities: Data from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2, and Transition Strategies and Recommendations: Perspectives of Parents of Young Adults with Disabilities. The fourth article, Specific Needs of Families of Young Adults with Profound Intellectual Disability During and After Transition to Adulthood: What are we missing? was found through Google Scholar. Many similarities between the four articles are noted, as well as the various flaws and implications with each study. Topics and hypotheses for future research are mentioned, and recommendations for practices regarding transition planning are shared based on participants’ knowledge, concerns, and experiences.

Post-School Strategies and Services for Students with Disabilities

Transition planning is a critical time for students with disabilities and should be a thorough, student-centered process that is completed in a timely manner prior to exiting the school system. This preparation should make students and parents or guardians aware of all options available for post-school programs and provide ample time to make arrangements with agencies, resources, and programs to reduce the risk of a lapse in services for students. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act “defines ‘transition services’ as a coordinated set of activities for a child with a disability that is designed within a results-oriented process, focused on improving the academic and functional achievement of the child to facilitate movement from school to postschool activities,” (Shogren & Plotner, 2012, p. 16). Shogren & Plotner (2012) also point out that “researchers have suggested that adolescents with autism or intellectual disability or their families particularly struggle with the transition to adulthood” (p. 16). Schwartz, Mactavish, & Lutfiyya (2006) found in the first phase of their study that parents of students transitioning into adulthood were frustrated at the lack of information regarding the options available during this transition. Research completed by Gauthier-Boudreault, Gallagher, & Couture (2017) corresponds with other research on this topic in that the lack of information, options, and timely planning for the transition of students with disabilities into postschool services leaves a lapse in services for the student and contributes to the frustration, financial difficulties, and emotional distress felt by the parents and families. The research included in this article should support the need for a streamlined process and guidelines that will help improve the quality of transition planning for students with disabilities as they proceed through the public education system, and, ultimately, into the postschool world.

Methods and Participants

The research studies cited are all qualitative studies in nature, with the exception of quantitative data also collected within the study completed by Shogren & Plotner (2012). The qualitative data collected within each study gives a more in-depth analysis into the feelings and perspectives of the various participant groups. The study completed by Schwartz et al. (2006) was a qualitative study that used a criterion-based sampling strategy to recruit a total of six participants comprised of experienced educators and administrators to be interviewed. The study completed by Shogren & Plotner (2012) used data from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2), beginning in 2000, from 2-year waves over the span of 10 years. The sampling from this data was a random sampling of students across the nation in 7^th grade or above, between the ages of 14-16 years, and under the 12 IDEA disability categories. Parent Telephone Interviews, completed by willing parents, and the School Program Survey, completed by willing teachers were also used to compare and contrast with the quantitative data from the NLTS2. The study completed by Francis, Stride, & Reed (2018) was a qualitative study that used a three-step convenience sampling process to select interested parents of students with disabilities who graduated from a postsecondary education program within the previous four years to this study. The participants were then interviewed in person or over Skype or FaceTime. Finally, the study completed by Gauthier-Boudreault et al. (2018) was also a qualitative study that interviewed the parents from a variety of settings, urban and rural, of young adults between the ages of 18-26 years of age with profound Intellectual Disability.

Findings and Implications

The findings in all four articles seemed to have the participants, both parent and educator groups, in agreement with certain concerns, issues, and suggested strategies. Overall, parents and educators from all four studies would like to see more progress and importance placed on inclusion of students with disabilities in the educational setting as well as within the community. They would also like to see better communication and create collaborative partnerships between all current and future stakeholders, improve access to information regarding postschool opportunities and adult agencies, more efficient information dissemination, actively plan for the final transition to adulthood in advance, and create a more consistent knowledge base for educators regarding postschool transition planning and services (Francis et al., 2018; Gauthier-Boudreault et al., 2017; Schwartz et al., 2006; Shogren & Plotner, 2012). In addition to these main findings, the two studies explored by Francis et al. (2018) and Gauthier-Boudreault et al. (2017) involved parent interviews which emphasized the critical need for parent skill development and support. Participants in the study conducted by Francis et al. (2018) stated that they “felt relieved when they could ‘network,’ ‘connect,’ ‘compare,’ and ‘just meet and talk’ with other parents.” Participants, in this study, who were already involved in support groups, expressed how these groups also provided a way of collecting information about resources and opportunities for their child with a disability that they may have, otherwise, not received (Francis et al., 2018).

It is also important to note that participants in three of the mentioned studies shared the belief to have high expectations of students with disabilities, and not limit them to a specific post-school track prematurely (Francis et al., 2018; Schwartz et al., 2006; Shogren & Plotner, 2012). Specifically, “there are ongoing challenges with stereotypes and low expectations related to the degree to which students with autism or intellectual disability can access integrated environments postschool and the appropriateness of goals that will facilitate access to postsecondary education, competitive employment, and community integration” (Shrogen & Plotner, 2012, p. 28). While this finding is a crucial point that the transition planning team must remember, it is also important to consider the opportunities available for students with severe and profound disabilities. There is still a great need to explore the options available for this population of students since “current studies mentioned the limited post-school activities for young adults with pervasive supports needs and the lack of meaningfulness of these opportunities, but it is still difficult to understand the reality of people with profound ID [Intellectual Disability] since most of articles combine participants presenting different types or levels of disabilities” (Gauthier-Boudreault et al., 2017, p. 17). The results discussed further stress how crucial individualized transition planning is for all students.

Flaws and Future Research Recommendations

The implications from these four research studies should help spur further research into the world of transition planning and services for young adults with disabilities. Some of the flaws in the four studies analyzed include a narrow pool of participants, lack of feedback from participants validating and/or clarifying their interview responses, incongruent interview questions between parents and teachers, and lack of a more diverse participant base (siblings, both parents, young adults with disabilities, etc.) (Francis et al., 2018; Gauthier-Boudreault et al., 2017; Schwartz et al., 2006; Shogren & Plotner, 2012).

Many considerations for future research were mentioned in all four articles as well. Researchers could look at including more educators at all three levels (elementary, middle school, and high school) as well as across more school districts in interview discussions, and exploring the effects of a “parent-driven information-sharing network” (Schwartz et al., 2006, p. 94). They could also complete studies on factors used to determine the appropriateness or lack of postsecondary education/vocational training, employment, and independent living goals for students with intellectual disability or autism. Researchers should also examine the expectations, involvement, and collaboration of professionals and agencies as related to students with disabilities in the transition planning process (Shogren & Plotner, 2012). Additional studies on the perspectives of all stakeholders, which could include siblings, educators, and service providers would help provide a more in-depth view of various perspectives. Studying the “advantages and disadvantages of inclusive versus disability-specific opportunities and environments” would provide a more meaningful discussion regarding the spectrum of inclusion (Francis et al., 2018, p. 20). Finally, there is a large research gap regarding studies focusing on transition into adulthood for adolescents and young adults with severe and profound Intellectual Disability. Further research into the impacts of poor transition planning leading to improper placement of young adults in this population, as well as studying the “risk factors that could lead some families to live a more difficult transition” would be very valuable to help the most severely disabled student population as they transition into a postschool environment.

Conclusion

In reviewing the research discussed throughout this paper, it is very clear that many more research studies need to be conducted to help educational professionals at all levels understand the importance of transitions for students with disabilities. It seems as though “schools are in compliance with the transition mandates of IDEA” (Shogren & Plotner, 2012, p. 23), however, based on these studies, there is more work that needs to be done to help streamline this process across all school districts and help parents and educators find a sense of uniformity, collaboration, and finality in planning prior to their child exiting the public school system. According to the data collected, involving a collaborative team (consisting of parents, educators, specialists, agencies, and other pertinent stakeholders) that consistently communicates and shares information in a timely manner prior to any transitions or meetings is a huge step in the right direction regarding transition planning. It is also suggested that “a ‘guidebook’ or ‘information center’ to help direct parents to available resources” is something parents would find very valuable during this process (Francis, et al., 2018, p. 16). There are many resources and various literature on these topics available, but it seems as though parents are having to look in a variety of areas for all of this information. Perhaps, a well-researched, concise, and thorough “one-stop-shop” type of resource is what parents are desiring. This could be a compilation of agencies and resources separated by particular criterion as well as specific locations or regions, and might also include a timeline of when agencies or resources should be applied for, included in the transition process, and what other steps might need to be taken at a particular time in a child’s life.

Further research on effective strategies and practices during the transition planning process can and should be a priority to those interested in studying the many facets of special education. Transitioning into adulthood is what every educator hopes to prepare his or her students for as effectively as possible. This is especially true in the world of special education. Students need to be prepared to become as independent, self-determined, and self-advocating as possible, and this can only happen if best practices are researched and utilized.

References

Francis, G. L., Stride, A., & Reed, S. (2018). Transition strategies and recommendations: perspectives of parents of young adults with disabilities. British Journal of Special Education, 45(3), 277–301. doi: 10.1111/1467-8578.12232.

Gauthier-Boudreault, C., Gallagher, F., & Couture, M. (2017). Specific needs of families of young adults with profound intellectual disability during and after transition to adulthood: What are we missing? Research in Developmental Disabilities, 66, 16–26. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2017.05.001.

Schwartz, K., Mactavish, J., & Lutfiyya, Z. M. (2006). Making Community Connections: Educator Perspectives on Transition Planning for Students with Intellectual Disabilities. Exceptionality Education Canada, 16(2), 73–100. Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/lbacu/AppData/Local/Temp/ContentServer.asp-8.pdf.

Shogren, K. A., & Plotner, A. J. (2012). Transition Planning for Students With Intellectual Disability, Autism, or Other Disabilities: Data from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 50(1), 16–30. doi: 10.1352/1934-9556-50.1.16.

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Critical Analysis: Strength-Based Approaches for Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disabilities

By Natasha Quesada

In the article, “Inclusion of Students with Learning, Emotional, and Behavioral Disabilities Through Strength-Based Approaches”, the authors Ampuja & Garwood, (2018), discuss the need for finding ways to maximize the educational performance of students with Emotional and Behavioral Disabilities (EBD) in the general education setting.  More and more students with EBD are being educated in general education classes rather than separate classrooms.  By promoting a growth-mindset way of thinking, students will focus on their strengths rather than deficits. 

Students with disabilities, particularly those with EBD and specific learning disabilities (SLD), often develop negative feelings toward school due to past experiences with academic and social failure.  These experiences cause them to have low self-esteem, negative self-worth, and cause them to have unrealistic expectations of their abilities and potential (Ampuja & Garwood, 2018).  More and more students with EBD are being served in the general classroom setting rather than separate classrooms due to federal requirements of least restrictive environment.  Most general education inclusion teachers do not have the experience or training to provide students with disabilities the academic and behavioral supports needed for them to succeed.  Inclusion teachers must have proper skills to help students develop self-esteem and promote growth-mindset to allow students to learn (Ampuja & Garwood, 2018). 

The authors Ampuja & Garwood, (2018), base their argument on the cognitive-behavior approach by stating that, “Cognitive-behavioral therapy, which informs growth mindset training, is rooted in the idea that if people change how they think, their actions will change as well.”  The idea is that students with a growth mindset will see failures as learning opportunities.  The opposite of growth mindset is a fixed mindset, also called learned helplessness.  Students with a fixed mindset do not believe they can change their intelligence and are prone to giving up when faced with failure, rather than trying things again and persevering.  Students with EBD and SLD often struggle with fixed mindset.   The authors suggest the implementation of a strength-based, growth mindset perspective in the classroom by following a nine-step process. 

1.    Gather baseline data on students’ current beliefs and knowledge of growth mindset.  
2.    Define and explain growth mindset and fixed mindset by using examples, visual aides, and charts.
3.    Provide examples of growth mindset using videos, K-W-L charts, and vocablulary instruction.
4.    Build a growth mindset community in the classroom by valuing all students’ displays of growth mindset.  Use charts and bubble maps to display the use in the classroom.
5.    Influence the growth mindset in the classroom by modeling through teacher behavior.  
6.    Allow room to grow by encouraging discussion of experiences and learning lessons.  
7.    Use visual displays such as bulletin boards to show examples and be reminders of growth mindset in the classroom.  
8.    Conscientiously use words to promote and grade the progress of growth mindset by specifically commenting on the positive behavior. 
9.    Generalize growth mindset beyond the classroom by helping students apply ways to use it in other aspects of life (Ampuja & Garwood, 2018).

The authors evidence their argument through a report by Snipes & Tran (2017), conducted by the U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Services, “Growth Mindset, Performance Avoidance, and Academic Behaviors in Clark County School District”.  The evidence based study found that interventions used to target the mindset of students can “lead to improved academic outcomes through changes in student disposition toward academic work and increased academic effort” (Snipes & Tran, 2017).  As students’ mindset improved, their academic behaviors improved.  This suggests that students, especially those with EBD and SLD, will have improvements in academic achievement if they are taught to change their thinking from a fixed mindset to a strengths-based growth mindset.  

The evidence reports regarding the implementation of strength-based growth mindset for students with EBD and LD is quite convincing.  The belief that high expectations for students will in turn help students believe in themselves is a common one.  However, teaching children to use a growth mindset toward challenges and struggles, rather than focus on failures allow students with disabilities to create a positive self-concept and provide confidence in their ability to progress and accomplish academic and behavioral goals.  

References

Ampuja, A. A., & Garwood, J. D. (2018). Inclusion of students with learning, emotional, and behavioral disabilities through strength-based approaches. Intervention in school and clinic, 1-6.
Snipes, J., & Loan, T. (2017). Growth mindset, performance avoidance, and academic behaviors in Clark County School District (REL 2017–226). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory West. Retrieved from ies. ed.gov/ncee/edlabs. 
 

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The Effect of Music Intervention on the Attention Span of Students with Disabilities

By Jovana Maximilien

Abstract

With an increasing number of students diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Autism Spectrum Disorder, Learning Disabilities, and Emotional Behavioral Disorders, the traditional classroom with straight rows, a blackboard, and complete silence have become obsolete.  Nowadays, students come from a multitude of backgrounds, possess different cognitive, social, and emotional abilities.  The formal teaching methods are often not engaging enough for the brains of these students that are wired differently.  As many students struggle with staying on-task for assignment completion, classroom engagement has become quite a challenge in the classroom.   Teachers often look for motivations, engaging activities, and reinforcers to captivate and retain the attention of students with disabilities.  One budding research technique in the field is the use of music intervention for students with disabilities.  This literature review focuses on the effect of music intervention (background music, music therapy, music as a reinforcer) on the increase of student engagement, on-task behavioral skills, and academic success.

Keywords: Music Therapy, Autism Spectrum Disorder, Learning Disabilities, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Emotional Behavioral Disorders

The topic of this review is based on “The Effect of Music Intervention (background music, music therapy, music as a reinforcer) on the Increase of Student Engagement, On-task Behavioral Skills, and Academic Success.” The purpose of this study is to research if the integration of music in the lives of students with disabilities affects their attention span, social interaction, and the overall increase in academic performance. This study is of particular interest to my professional career as the greatest challenge of students with disabilities is engagement and on-task behavioral skills.

The articles reviewed were carefully selected through a variety of search engines, including Google Scholar, PsychINFO, and ERIC.  The pieces all focus on the addition of music as therapy, background music, and as a reward.

The following articles were reviewed: “The Effect of Background Music on Learning Disabled Elementary School Students’ Performance in Writing.”(Legutko & Trissler, 2012)

“A Survey of Music Therapy Methods and Their Role in The Treatment of Early Elementary School Children with ADHD.” (Jackson, 2003); “Empowering Students with Disabilities Through Music Integration in the Classroom: Music Therapy on Student.” (Sze, 2005)

“Creating order out of chaos: Music therapy with adolescent boys diagnosed with a Behaviour Disorder and/or Emotional Disorder.” ( McIntyre, 2007)

According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2017), “In 2017–18, the number of students ages 3–21 who received special education services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) was 7.0 million, or 14 percent of all public school students. Among students receiving special education services, 34 percent had specific learning disabilities, 10 percent with Autism Spectrum Disorder, 5 percent with Emotional Disturbances, and 14 percent with Other Health Impairments including students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders.”

The perspective on how to best educate these students and provide them the tools necessary to increase their engagement is of crucial importance to educators.  At the secondary level, students with disabilities struggle with motivation and on-task behavioral skills.  The addition of music interventions in the daily lives of students with disabilities has been proven effective in some cases, while in some cases, the results were not conclusive.  While the research is inconclusive, it’s essential to consider that an effective intervention or therapy might work for one child or group and not another.  It has been my experience, working with students with disabilities that music can make a massive difference in the behavior of some students but not others.  Although music therapy is not used as a form of related service yet in Public Education, it has become increasingly popular in some school districts.

Music Therapy and intervention

According to the American Music Therapy Association (2010), Music therapy is a well-established professional health discipline that uses music as the therapeutic stimulus to achieve non-musical treatment goals.

“Research supports connections between speech and singing, rhythm and motor behavior, memory for song and memory for academic material, and overall ability of preferred music to enhance mood, attention, and behavior to optimize the student’s ability to learn and interact. Therefore, one of the purposes of music therapy for persons with autism is to provide the individual with an initial assist using melodic and rhythmic strategies, followed by the fading of musical cues to aid in generalization and transfer to other environments. (American Music Therapy Association, 2007)

Music therapy involves the use of music intervention with visuals to address the social, emotional, behavioral, communicative, and cognitive functions.  For many students with disabilities, this form of therapy or intervention provides an age-appropriate manner to illicit change in behavior and increase the development of skills. (American Music Association, 2004)

Music therapists are often hired in schools to provide music therapy services listed on the Individualized Education Plan for mainstreamed special learners. Music learning is used to strengthen nonmusical areas such as communication skills and physical coordination skills, which are important for daily life. (American Music Association, 2007)

According to the American Music Association (2007),  Music therapy interventions focus on enhancing social, communicative, motor/sensory, emotional, and academic/cognitive functioning, or music skills in individuals with ASD. Music therapy services are based on each client’s abilities, noting preferences, needs, the family’s values, beliefs, and priorities. Music therapists work in partnership with clients, families, and teams.

Background Music and Students with Specific Learning Disabilities 

According to the National Institutes of Health (2019), Fifteen percent of the U.S. population, or one in seven Americans, has some type of learning disability.  These students express difficulties with expressive language, reading, and writing.  It is not a disability that can be cured but a lifelong issue.

“A learning disability is a neurological disorder. In simple terms, a learning disability results from a difference in the way a person’s brain is “wired.” Children with learning disabilities are as smart or smarter than their peers. But they may have difficulty reading, writing, spelling, reasoning, recalling and/or organizing information if left to figure things out by themselves or if taught in conventional ways.” (LD Online, 2019)

In the article, The Effects of Background Music on Learning Disabled Elementary students Performance in Writing, Legutko and Trissler emphasize the following: Positive Effects of Music on Student Learning, Neutral and Inconclusive Effects of Music on Student Learning, Examples of Integrating Music into Learning. One of the hardest tasks for educators is the motivation of students with disabilities, “Educators have a problem motivating students to become engaged in the literary process, and music may be one way of fostering this engagement (Ebistuani, Donlan, & Siebers, 1991). “Integrated music experiences improve students’ reading, writing, thinking, and analyzing skills and strategies by providing excitement in learning.” (Collett, 1992).

It was noted that some of the students who were subjected to background music experienced positive outcomes.  According to O’Bruba (1987), the use of music in the teaching of reading at the elementary level may motivate and build the ability of students, whether or not they are musically talented or intellectually above-average. O’Bruba further stated that because of similarities in the symbol structure of music and written language, left-to-right framework, and visual and auditory discrimination, music could be used in beginning reading programs for stimulation and inspiration.

 Legutko and Trissler, indicate that in their research, all students improved their writing efficiency throughout the experiment. As a group, students improved by 26.9 words correct per three-minute probe from the beginning to the end of the experiment. (p.3)

When the writing scores of the students were analyzed after the experimental process, it was clear that “In both cases where there was a change in environment – adding the music and removing the music – scores dropped immediately and markedly in the week of the change. When music was added in the treatment phase, the mean score dropped from 54.1 to 50.6 (difference of – 3.6). When music was removed in the return to baseline, the mean score dropped from 71.9 to 61.7” (Legutko & Trissler, 2012, p.3)

Impact of Music Therapy and Students with Behavioral Disorders

Music Therapy has also had an impact on the behavior of students who showed a lack of interest, motivation, difficulty staying on-task, and high frustration levels. The article “Creating order out of chaos: Music therapy with adolescent boys diagnosed with a Behaviour Disorder and Emotional Disorder.” (McIntyre, 2007) The following subheadings: What is a Behavior Disorder? What is an Emotional Disorder? What is Music Therapy?  were reviewed in the article.

Many studies state that music therapy is beneficial to adolescents with Emotional Behavioral Disorders and reduce levels of stress and anxiety.  In the article, McIntyre describes students with behavioral disorders as having behaviors outside the norm like lack of focus, attention, off-task behaviors, immaturity, disorganization, nonconforming behaviors, and having difficulty interacting with peers.  The common behavioral disorders include Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Oppositional Defiance Disorder (ODD) and Conduct Disorders (CD)  (p.8)

Wasserman (1972) saw music therapy as a tool to improve emotional responsiveness, and recently Layman et al. (2002) indicated that it helps with problems of impulsivity and self-regulation. Music therapy can also help with assisting the internal organization and coordination of the mind and body (Gaston, 1968; Montello, 1996) 

Music therapy in an educational setting is acknowledged by Wilson (1991) as contributing significantly to an individual’s learning capacity and just as importantly in their motivation to learn. (p.61)   In the article, McIntyre states that students with emotional Behavioural Disabilities can benefit significantly from the addition of music therapy in their routines. “Students diagnosed with a BD/ED participating in group music therapy sessions for a study by Haines (1989), demonstrated more immediate differences in group dynamics than those participating in verbal therapy alone. Subjects were more motivated, more willing to work together, playing, discussing, composing, and reflecting, and made more choices regarding their interactions.” (McIntyre, p. 7)  

In the Literature Review, McIntyre (2007) says, “Music therapy appears to be especially effective with adolescents because they already relate extensively to the music of their peer culture, and it is a familiar medium to them. It can readily provide a common starting place for discussion and self-expression. The non-verbal aspect of music makes it an excellent resource for reaching people and facilitating self-expression through an alternate means of communication. Music is often the only tool that enhances communication with this population. (p.7)

Adolescents exposed to music therapy immediately improved certain skills.  As noted by McIntyre (2007), students showed “positive attitudes towards their own education began to emerge, a stronger sense of “self” became evident, improvement in classroom relationships, motivation to improve their academic results occurred.” (p.13)  Although the research has been proven to be positive and beneficial to adolescents with Behavioral Disorders, there is still much work to be done in the field.

“More research is needed into the effects of music therapy on adolescents and children with BD/ED’s so the best clinical interventions can be conducted with adolescents and families who are experiencing these challenging behaviors. Creating an evidence base in music therapy for this client group will assist music therapy clinicians in establishing best practices in mental health care. New measuring tools need to be developed and tested to ensure their efficacy. The literature needs to be enriched to include quantitative studies measuring the effects of music therapy on young people who have been diagnosed with a BD/ED as music therapy offers potential to attend to the cognitive deficits that few other interventions can address.” (McIntyre, 2007,  p.16)

Music Therapy and Students with ADHD

According to the American Psychiatric Association, an estimated 8.4 percent of children and 2.5 percent of adults have ADHD.  ADHD is often first identified in school-aged children when it leads to disruption in the classroom or problems with schoolwork. It can also affect adults. It is more common among boys than girls.  (2017)

“Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common mental disorders affecting children. ADHD also affects many adults. Symptoms of ADHD include inattention (not being able to keep focus), hyperactivity (excess movement that is not fitting to the setting) and impulsivity (hasty acts that occur in the moment without thought).” (APA, 2017)

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder can present itself in three different types: inattentive, hyperactivity/impulsive, and combined types.  Scientists have not yet identified the causes of ADHD; however, the number of students diagnosed is increasing at an alarming rate.  These students struggle with remaining focused and therefore completing their assignments.  For many students, music can be an outlet where they feel free to feel and express themselves.  Often the use of background music, or playing an instrument provides them with the sensory stimulation they continuously crave.

In the article, A Survey of Music Therapy Methods and Their Role in the Treatment of Early Elementary School Children with ADHD by Jackson (2003), research was focused on the different areas: Music Methods Used with ADHD children, Goals Addressed by Therapy Methods, Music Therapy Treatment Formats for ADHD Students, and Perceived Effectiveness of Music Therapy Treatment for ADHD.  In the article, Jackson focuses her study on the fact that music therapy is being used for students diagnosed with ADHD, the effectiveness of the treatment and the role of music therapy contingent to other treatment plans. (Jackson, 2003, p. 4)

In the study, “Subjects were asked to indicate the types of goals they address in music therapy for children with ADHD. Behavioral goals were iden­tified by 92 respondents (94%), psychosocial goals were identified by 87 respondents (89%), and cognitive goals were identified by 68 respondents (69%). Most respondents indicated that they address two or more types of goals, and 81 (83%) ranked the types of goals according to the frequency with which they address them.” (Jackson, 2003, p. 6)

According to Jackson, Music Therapy was requested mostly by parents and teachers. Significant improvement was noted on the behavioral, social, and cognitive aspects for some of the children, therefore, adding mandated music therapy on these students’ IEP’s.   The respondents of the survey indicated that the students gained attention, on-task behav­ior improved, and there was an increase in self-esteem, self-expression, and frustration tolerance. “Most respondents indicated that the role music therapy plays in the treatment of ADHD children is multidisciplinary. It seems that a multidisciplinary approach may be the best for this particular population since, by definition, children with ADHD will present problems in multiple functional domains and in multiple settings.” (Jackson, 2003, p.16)

The article “Empowering Students with Disabilities Through Music Integration in the Classroom: Music Therapy on Student.” (Sze, 2005) focuses on the following subheadings: Students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders, Students with Behavioral Disorders, Students with Learning Disabilities.  In the article, Sze focuses on the numerous positive effects of music for students with disabilities and the importance of music intervention in the inclusion setting.  She proclaims that music contributes to higher academic development, an increase in cognitive levels, and social skills. (Sze, 2005, p.82)

“Music creates physiological responses, which are associated with emotional reactions. Music explains the tension release sequence associated with emotional arousal (Abeles, 1980). The speed and intensity of the musical beat creates the different feelings in each type of song. The opportunity to play an instrument can be used as a reinforcer for on task behavior.” (Sze, 2005, p.81)

In her research, Sze emphasizes the importance of empowering students with choice.  She indicates that students with disabilities should be involved in the learning process thus allowing the students to select music as a reward, attending individual or group music therapy sessions, and using background music while completing an assignment.

“The author also argues that music can be used as a tool to encourage human development in cognitive, learning, perceptual, motor, social, and emotional development. In a related study, Stambough (1996) conducted an action research at a music camp to 37 campers ages from 9-45, each suffers varies degree of a genetic condition called Williams Syndrome, which leads to cognitive impairment. She found that several strategies and techniques, combined with a great deal of patience, helped to accommodate the special needs of the students. Other researchers suggested steps for facilitating the integration of students with emotional or behavioral disorders into the regular music classroom. Results gathered from King & Schwabenlender (1994) reported various supportive strategies for promoting emotional well-being in children from a diverse background. Allow children to be expressive provides them with a sense of empowerment.” (Dixon & Chalmers, 1990).

Conclusion

In conclusion, the research conducted on the “The Effect of Music Intervention on the Attention Span of Students with Disabilities” remains inconclusive.  Although most authors indicated an overall increase on the social, emotional, and cognitive abilities of the students the quantitative data remains inconsistent.  Most teachers and students interviewed expressed positive outcomes relating to the application of music interventions, but the numbers were more neutral.  Students with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, those with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, and the students with Autism seemed to benefit the most from the studies.  The application of music intervention is a growing trend in schools, and in the world of therapies.  Although not yet widely accepted as a related service in all school districts, there is a significant amount of research and study praising the addition of music therapy or interventions for students with significant cognitive and behavioral disabilities.  Perhaps, adding music intervention as a form of praise or accommodation in the student’s Individualized Education Plan is the next step in the quest to find the best possible learning environment for students with Disabilities.

References

Barlow, D. H. (1993). Clinical Handbook of Psychological Disorders: A Step by Step Treatment Manual. New York: Guildford

Dixon, G. T., & Chalmers, F. G. (1990). The expressive arts in education. Childhood Education, 67, 12-17.

Gaston, E. T. (1968). Music in Therapy. New York: McMillan Publishers.

Haines, J. H. (1989). The Effects of Music Therapy on Self-Esteem of Emotionally-Disturbed Adolescents. Music Therapy, 8, 1, 78-91.

Jackson, Nancy (2003) A Survey of Music Therapy Methods and Their Role in the Treatment of Early Elementary School Children with ADHD. Journal of Music Therapy , (302-323)

Legutko R.S., & Trissler T.T. (2012). The Effect of Background Music on Learning Disabled Elementary School Students’ Performance in Writing. Current Issues In Education Vol. 15, Number 1

McIntyre, J. (2007) Creating order out of chaos: Music therapy with adolescent boys diagnosed with a Behaviour Disorder and/or Emotional Disorder. Music Therapy Today (Online 1st April) Vol.VIII (1) 56-79. available at http://musictherapyworld.net

MTA (2005). What is music therapy? Silver Spring, MD: American Music Therapy Association. Retrieved from http://www.musictherapy.org/about/quotes/

Stambough, L. (1996). Special learners with special abilities. Music Educators Journal, 83(3), 19- 24.

Sze, Susan (2005). Empowering Students with Disabilities Through Music Integration in the Classroom: Music Therapy on Student, (p. 70-83)

Wasserman, N. (1972). Music therapy for the emotionally disturbed in a private hospital. Journal of Music Therapy 9, 2, 99-104

Wilson, C. V. (1976). The use of rock music as a reward in behavior therapy with Children. .Journal of Music Therapy, (p.13, 39-48)

https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cgg.asp

http://www.mtabc.com/what-is-music-therapy/how-does-music-therapy-work/children-with-emotional-disorders/

https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/adhd/what-is-adhd

http://www.ldonline.org

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Book Review: The Mindful School Transforming School Culture through Mindfulness and Compassion

By: Amairany Paniagua

The Mindful School Transforming School Culture through Mindfulness and Compassion is a book that provides school leaders and their personnel with strategies that can help increase students academics as well as their social, emotional functioning, through the use and implementation of mindfulness and compassion-based programs. The authors Patricia A. Jennings and other contributors, review case studies, evidence-based practices, and use their collective personal experiences to help guide new and old school administrators in the ever-changing modern school system. They encourage school leaders to analyze and think about how implementing mindfulness and compassion-based program at their school will help them better serve their staff, students, parents, and themselves.

As mindfulness begins to have a more prominent presence in our educational system, it is essential to understand what it is; mindfulness is defined as “the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment.” In the book, the authors discuss how using mindfulness-based educational initiatives can help support teachers manage the occupational stressors involved in teaching. When this happens, teachers can better support their students in the classroom. Rather than merely reacting to a situation, they encourage the reader to stop, listen, and see what is going on before they act on impulse.

When it comes to mindfulness-based programs, some of the primary goals of the programs discussed were to help students, teachers, and other school staff find skills and strategies that will allow them to manage stress and their emotions, while also teaching them to work with others to reach their goals cooperatively. The programs reviewed in this book lasted anywhere from 6 weeks to a full academic year, they also required specialists to come out and help teach the staff at schools how to identify and use mindfulness-based strategies in their classroom. While it is essential to be trained adequately, one must think about how this cost will affect a school where there is barely enough money in the budget to purchase books for the academic year.

Jennings defines compassion as “the process of recognizing suffering and the motivation to relieve suffering.” In the book, Jennings reviews some of the tell-tale signs of a student suffering–from signs that are obvious such as crying, to other signs that are not so obvious, such as acting up. Teachers are often the first to realize that a student is suffering; however, they require the support of the administration to help the students who may be suffering. When administrators and teachers use a mindfulness-compassionate based program, they can work together to support all students in the classroom–especially those who may be suffering.

Many readers of this book will realize that the entire transformational process proposed by the authors can be difficult to do and difficult to implement. Things have to change, and mindsets have to be rewired to correct some of our mistakes from the past. However, while it may take years to see change happen fully, it is essential to know that things will change for the better. Some studies reviewed by the authors were also found to have “inconsistent or nuanced” data with regards to the effects of mindfulness programs at schools. This data could be one of the reasons why some people may be hesitant to implement a mindfulness program at their school, especially a costly one.

When compared to Michael Fullan’s book, Leading in a Culture of Change, one of the primary similarities is the focus on relationships when it comes to implementing lasting change. Forming relationships with peers, parents, and students is crucial in helping everyone meet their maximum potential. Working together allows people to develop “empathy and compassion” for the respective role of each member in a school community plays. When speaking about a school community, the authors are not only talking about teachers and principals; they are also talking about the parents and students that attend the school. As stated in the book, “…high-quality education relationships and attachments are central to healthy human development.” Not only are high-quality education relationships central to human development, but they also help students who come from vulnerable populations grow both educationally and emotionally.

The book ends with looking at the future of education and how the use of mindfulness and compassion-based programs will affect students, parents, teachers, and school leaders, and how contemplative teacher education programs may better prepare teachers for today’s educational world. Contemplative education means to “deeply consider one’s connection to a subject or discipline in unbiased, selfless, compassionate, and holistic ways.” The authors of the book found that using contemplative methods in teaching produced sustainable and meaningful personal and community transformations in teaching and learning. This type of teaching is based on teachers looking within themselves to learn and grow through their own experiences in and outside of the classroom. Ultimately, mindfulness and compassion-based programs are meant for creating a better future, not fixing the present.

References

The Mindful School Transforming School Culture through Mindfulness and Compassion

Patricia A. Jennings, Anthony A. DeMauro, Polina P. Mischenko; The Guilford Press, 2019, 271 pp, $32.00 

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Acknowledgements

Portions of this or previous month’s NASET’s Special Educator e-Journal were excerpted from:

• Center for Parent Information and Resources
• Committee on Education and the Workforce
• FirstGov.gov-The Official U.S. Government Web Portal
• Journal of the American Academy of Special Education Professionals (JAASEP)
• National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability for Youth
• National Institute of Health
• National Organization on Disability
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
• U.S. Department of Education
• U.S. Department of Education-The Achiever
• U.S. Department of Education-The Education Innovator
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
• U.S. Department of Labor
• U.S. Food and Drug Administration
• U.S. Office of Special Education

The National Association of Special Education Teachers (NASET) thanks all of the above for the information provided for this or prior editions of the Special Educator e-Journal

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Download a PDF Version of This e-Journal

To View or Download a PDF file for this issue of the Special Educator e-Journal  –  CLICK HERE

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