Pre-service Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Including Students with ASD in General Education

This issue of NASET’s Autism Spectrum Disorder series comes from the Fall, 2022 edition of JAASEP. It was written by Mary A. Houser, Ed.D., Tara S. Guerriero, Ph.D., David L. Bolton, Ph.D., and Esther Smidt, Ph.D. The purpose of this study was to examine special education and general education pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward including PK-12 students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in the general education classroom from an academic perspective. This study surveyed 160 undergraduate pre-service teachers (special education and general education) from a mid-size, northeastern state university’s teacher preparation programs using an adapted version of the Attitudes Toward Inclusive Education Scale (ATIES). Significant differences were found in pre-service teachers’ attitudes when examining the impact of the academic level of the PK-12 student with ASD, the academic program of study (e.g. special education vs. general education), and the level of undergraduate progress (i.e. year in undergraduate career). 

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Pre-service Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Including Students with ASD in General Education

Mary A. Houser, Ed.D.

Tara S. Guerriero, Ph.D.

David L. Bolton, Ph.D.

Esther Smidt, Ph.D.

 

West Chester University of Pennsylvania

 

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine special education and general education pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward including PK-12 students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in the general education classroom from an academic perspective. This study surveyed 160 undergraduate pre-service teachers (special education and general education) from a mid-size, northeastern state university’s teacher preparation programs using an adapted version of the Attitudes Toward Inclusive Education Scale (ATIES). Significant differences were found in pre-service teachers’ attitudes when examining the impact of the academic level of the PK-12 student with ASD, the academic program of study (e.g. special education vs. general education), and the level of undergraduate progress (i.e. year in undergraduate career). 

Keywords: inclusion, inclusive education, pre-service teacher attitude, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), teacher preparation program, special education, general education

Pre-service Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Including Students with ASD in General Education

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by social and communication challenges as well as restricted and repetitive behavior.  It is considered a spectrum disorder whose origins are rooted in early brain development. Typically, autistic symptoms emerge between 12 and 18 months of age (NIH, 2017); however, sometimes these symptoms do not become apparent until the child enters school, as in the case of children with less severe symptoms of ASD (Nationwide Children’s, 2020). In recent years, the U.S. has experienced a surge in children being diagnosed with ASD (Knopf, 2020). What was once considered a low incidence disability is now considered the fastest-growing developmental disability (CDC, n.d.). As of 2020, approximately 1 in 54 children are being diagnosed with an ASD (Cardinal, Griffiths, Maupin, & Fraumeni-McBride, 2021; Autism Society, 2020) due to various reasons such as broadening its definition and better diagnostic testing. It has been reported that an increase in ASD prevalence has occurred every year since the Center for Disease Control (CDC) began tracking it in 2000.

Because of the increasing number of children being diagnosed with ASD, educators are now being faced with how this increase is impacting the composition and success of today’s classrooms. With appropriate special education services and supports, many children with ASD can be successfully educated in inclusive classrooms (U.S. Department of Education, n.d.). Inclusive education occurs “…when students with special needs including disabilities are educated in neighborhood schools in age-appropriate regular education classrooms settings with non-disabled peers, and are provided with supports and instruction that assures their participation with their peers, while also meeting their individual strengths and needs (Chauhan & Mantry, p.1, 2018).

Other students with ASD will be educated in self-contained classrooms, separate schools, or residential facilities, primarily due to the unique challenges this disorder presents.  In the U.S., however, all students with disabilities must be educated in their least restrictive environment (LRE). A student’s LRE is an educational setting where the student is educated with his typical peers to the greatest extent possible, with appropriate support services (IRIS Center, n.d.).  Determining the appropriate placement for students with ASD is largely dependent on the student’s needs (Cappe, Bolduc, Poirier, Popa-Roch, & Boujut, 2017); however, the success with which their education is implemented relies heavily on the educational team that is supporting them.

Literature Review

Recently, schools have been acknowledging that teacher preparation is key to the successful inclusion of students with disabilities (Sharma, 2018). This refers to education coursework and related field experiences that develop the pre-service teacher’s ability to be an effective educator. Perceptions and attitudes surrounding the effectiveness of inclusive education are often amongst those concepts in which pre-service teachers develop opinions.  Although there is existing research regarding pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward including students with disabilities, it does not target students with ASD, in particular.  The literature that does exist regarding pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward including students with ASD has largely been conducted outside of the United States, where teacher preparation programs and inclusive education may look different (Alzahrani & Brigham, 2017). To illustrate, terminology surrounding inclusive practices can differ among countries as well as the manner in which students are identified or assessed as needing special education services (D’Alessio & Watkins, 2009).

Why is it important that we study pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward including students with ASD? Research indicates that teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion have been significantly shaped by their pre-service experiences (Miesera, DeVries, Jungjohann, & Gebhardt, 2019; Avramidis & Norwich, 2002; Shade & Stewart, 2001). “The shaping of positive attitudes toward students with disabilities is an important aspect of the education of pre-service teachers (Sze, 2009, p.53).” Therefore, one could derive that investigating pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion, coupled with the continually increasing prevalence of PK-12 students with ASD, would be meaningful in ensuring that educators are fostering positive attitudes regarding this educational trend in order to procure the best outcomes for these students.

As previously stated, there are only a few studies that pinpoint pre-service teachers’ attitude toward inclusion of students with ASD. In a study by Low et al. (2018) special education pre-service teachers were found to be less in favor of full inclusion of students with ASD in general education (i.e. students with ASD in general education for all subjects), when compared with general education pre-service teachers. In another study, Chung et al. (2015) examined pre-service teacher attitudes toward students with ASD and suggested that pre-service teachers (general education and special education) possessed more negative attitudes toward students with ASD being included in general education classrooms. Further, another study on this topic suggested that pre-service teachers feel they have received sufficient schooling in inclusive practices, but lack the experiential learning to feel confident when teaching students with behavioral and social/emotional challenges (Al Shoura & Ahmad, 2020).

There is considerably more literature about attitudes towards inclusion once pre-service teachers become practicing teachers that warrants attention. Research suggests that teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion have shown to be the strongest predictor of successful learning environments (Van Laarhoven et al., 2007; Avramidis & Norwich, 2002; Barton, 1992) and teachers with positive attitudes toward inclusive education are more likely to implement the necessary strategies to meet the diverse needs of their learners (Weber & Greiner, 2019).  This is important as research indicates that one of the most important predictors of successful inclusion is the attitude of general education teachers (Ritter, Wehner, Lohaus, & Kramer, 2020). This attitude is often shaped during their undergraduate career and any information that investigators can gain related to pre-service teachers’ attitudes could be valuable in enhancing the quality of education for students with ASD.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine pre-service teacher candidates’ attitudes toward including Pre-Kindergarten (PK) -12 students with ASD in general education classrooms from an academic perspective according to the following: 1) the level of academic performance of the PK-12 students with ASD; 2) the academic program of study (i.e. major/minor degree programs) and the level of academic performance of the PK-12 students with ASD; and 3) the academic level of progress (among special education pre-service teachers) and the level of academic performance of the PK-12 students with ASD.  The research questions in each of those areas of inquiry for this study were as follows:

Level of Academic Performance of PK-12 Students with ASD

1. Does the current level of academic performance (i.e. one year below grade level or two or more years below grade level) of the PK-12 student with ASD impact the preservice teachers’ attitude towards inclusion from an academic perspective?

Academic Program of Study and Level of Academic Performance of PK-12 Students with ASD

1. Does the first- or second-year pre-service teachers’ academic program of study (i.e. major/minor degree programs) impact attitude towards inclusion from an academic perspective?

1. Does the first- or second-year pre-service teachers’ academic program of study (i.e. major/minor degree programs) impact attitude towards inclusion from an academic perspective for students who are academically one year below grade level?

1. Does the first- or second-year pre-service teachers’ academic program of study (i.e. major/minor degree programs) impact attitude towards inclusion from an academic perspective for students who are academically two or more years below grade level?

Level of Progress in Undergraduate Career and Level of Academic Performance of PK-12 Students with ASD

1. Does the special education pre-service teachers’ academic level of progress in their undergraduate career (i.e. first-/second-year and third-/fourth year) impact attitude towards inclusion from an academic perspective?

1. Does the special education pre-service teachers’ academic level of progress in their undergraduate career (i.e. first-/second-year and third-/fourth year) impact attitude towards inclusion from an academic perspective for students who are academically one year below grade level?

1. Does the special education pre-service teachers’ academic level of progress in their undergraduate career (i.e. first-/second-year and third-/fourth year) impact attitude towards inclusion from an academic perspective for students who are academically two or more years below grade level?

Methodology

Participants

The participants for this study consisted of 160 undergraduate, pre-service teachers from a mid-size state university located in the northeastern part of the United States. Pre-service teachers who had taken a foundations of special education course (which is typically taken during the first or second year by most teacher preparation programs at the University) and an upper-level special education communications course (which is typically taken during the third or fourth year by special education majors or minors) were given the opportunity to participate in the study during the Spring 2019 and Fall 2019 semesters.

Participants were matriculating in one of the following types of programs:

1. A special education program, which is defined as being 
   1. enrolled in a dual special education teacher preparation program and general education teacher preparation program or
   2. enrolled in a special education minor program whose majors vary

1. A general education teacher preparation program without a dual major or minor in special education, which is defined as being
   1. enrolled in an Early Grades (PK -4) program;
   2. enrolled in a Middle Grades (4-8) program;
   3. enrolled in a Secondary Education (7-12) program; and
   4. enrolled in a Music Education (PK-12) program

Participants who were enrolled in a special education program (N=106) were categorized into 2 different groups: 1) first- and second-year students (N=29); and 2) third- and fourth-year students (N=77) to differentiate between their level of academic progress (a foundations of special education course as compared to an upper-level special education communications course) (see Table 1).  Participants who were enrolled in a general education program only (N=53) were typically in their first and second year (N=46) and enrolled in a foundations of special education course (see Table 1). 

Table 1

Level of Progress                                                                                                        Frequency

______________________________________________________________________________

First- and Second-Year Students in a Special Education Program                            29

Third- and Fourth-Year Students in a Special Education Program                            77

First- and Second-Year Students in a General Education Only Program                   46

Third- and Fourth-Year Students in a General Education Only Program                  7

Total                                                                                                                            159*

_____________________________________________________________________________

* One participant enrolled in a special education program didn’t indicate the year in undergraduate career

Instrument

The Attitudes Toward Inclusive Education Scale (ATIES) is an instrument that was developed to assess teachers’ attitudes toward inclusive education (Wilczenski, 1992). The instrument measures physical, academic, behavioral, and social aspects of inclusion. It consists of sixteen items with each of the four dimensions being measured by four items. The instrument was validated on a representative sample of 301 in-service teachers and 144 pre-service teachers in New Hampshire. A principal component analysis was used to determine the construct validity of the instrument (Wilczenski, 1992), which then resulted in the 16-item instrument. Each of the hypothesized items loaded on each of the factors, as expected. The internal consistency reliabilities (coefficient alpha) of each of the four factors were adequate, ranging from .82 to .92. The intercorrelations between the factors ranged from .44 to .66. Wilczenski (1992) concluded that the ATIES is valid for measuring attitudes toward inclusion.

For this study, the investigators exclusively examined the impact of variables on the academic factor, which addresses attitude towards including students with ASD in inclusive classrooms, academically. As such, it was necessary for the investigators to only examine the following items on the ATIES that pertained to the academic factor:

1. Students with ASD whose academic achievement is 2 or more years below other students in the grade should be in regular classes

1. Students with ASD whose academic achievement is 1 year below other students in the grade should be in regular classes

1. Students with ASD who need an individualized functional academic program in everyday reading and math should be in regular classes

1. Students with ASD who are frequently absent from school should be in regular classes

The instrument required participants to rate the items on a Likert-scale of 1-6, with 1 representing strongly agree to 6 representing strongly disagree.  For purposes of conforming to a more typical Likert scale (positive rating higher on the Likert scale and negative rating lower on the Likert scale), the values in the Likert scale were reversed in the analysis of the data.

Procedure

Participants completed the ATIES via the cloud-based platform, Qualtrics. They used personal devices including laptops, tablets, and smartphones to record their responses. Prior to completing the survey,participants voluntarily viewed two short videos depicting the characteristics of ASD, as some students had a clear understanding of the disorder, while others were still learning about the characteristics of ASD in their respective coursework. There was a 100% response rate on the ATIES. The researchers visited several foundations of special education classes and special education communication classes to discuss the study and to generate interest to participate in the study.  As an incentive to participate, students were offered varying amounts of extra credit points by their professors.  In addition, the study was advertised by exhibiting research posters throughout the university’s education building. 

Results

Level of Academic Performance of PK-12 Students with ASD

1. Does the current level of academic performance (i.e. one year below grade level or two or more years below grade level) of the PK-12 student with ASD impact the preservice teachers’ attitude towards inclusion from an academic perspective?

As a means of identifying whether the level of academic achievement of the student with ASD (i.e. one-year below the current grade level or two or more years below the current grade level) impacts attitudes toward the inclusion from an academic perspective, a paired-sample t-test was used. The test showed a significant difference in means (p=.000) (see Table 2). Overall, participants were more willing to include students in the classroom who were academically one year below grade level over those who were academically two or more years below grade level.

Table 2

Attitudes Toward Inclusion based on the Student with ASD’s Level of Academic Achievement

Two or more years below grade level             160                  3.33                 1.26

*p =.000

Academic Program of Study and Level of Academic Performance of PK-12 Students with ASD

1. Does the first- or second-year pre-service teachers’ academic program of study (i.e. major/minor degree programs) impact attitude towards inclusion from an academic perspective?

As a means of identifying potential differences in attitude among first- and second-year pre-service teachers in a special education program as compared to a general education only program, an independent t-test was used.  The means and standard deviations of the scores can be found in Table 3.  There were no significant differences in variance (p=.95), but a significant difference in means was found between the groups (p = .012).  Overall, first- and second-year general education only pre-service teachers had a more positive attitude toward inclusion.

Table 3

Program of Study                                           Frequency       Mean*             Standard Deviation

______________________________________________________________________________

Special Education (Major or Minor)               29                    13.69               3.07

*p = .012

1. Does the first- or second-year pre-service teachers’ academic program of study (i.e. major/minor degree programs) impact attitude towards inclusion from an academic perspective for students who are academically one year below grade level?

As a means of identifying potential differences in attitudes toward the inclusion of students who are academically one year below grade level among first- and second-year special education pre-service teachers as compared to first- and second-year general education only pre-service teachers, a two-sample independent t-test was used.  The means and standard deviations of the scores can be found in Table 4.  There were no significant differences in variance (p=.933) or means between the groups (p = .097). 

Table 4

Attitudes Toward Inclusion of Students with ASD (One Year Below Grade Level) Based on Program of Study

Special Education (Major or Minor)               29                    4.10                 1.08

General Education Only                                 46                    4.50                 0.93

______________________________________________________________________________

1. Does the first- or second-year pre-service teachers’ academic program of study (i.e. major/minor degree programs) impact attitude towards inclusion from an academic perspective for students who are academically two or more years below grade level?

As a means of identifying potential differences in attitudes toward the inclusion of students who are academically two or more years below grade level among first- and second-year special education as compared to first- and second-year general education only pre-service teachers, a two-sample independent t-test was used.  The means and standard deviations of the scores can be found in Table 5.  There were no significant differences in variance (p=.100) or means between the groups (p = .057). 

Table 5

Attitudes Toward Inclusion of Students with ASD (Two or More Years Below Grade Level) Based on Program of Study

Special Education (Major or Minor)               29                    2.76                 0.91

Level of Progress in Undergraduate Career and Level of Academic Performance of PK-12 Students with ASD

1. Does the special education pre-service teachers’ academic level of progress in their undergraduate career (i.e. first-/second-year and third-/fourth year) impact attitude towards inclusion from an academic perspective?

A two-sample independent t-test was used to compare the attitudes of first- and second-year pre-service teachers and third- and fourth-year pre-service teachers who were in a special education program. There was no significant difference in variance (p=.053).  However, there was a significant difference in means (p = .002), with the means being greater for the third- and fourth-year students than first- and second-year students (16.68 and 13.69, respectively) (See Table 6). Overall, third- and fourth-year special education pre-service teachers had a more positive attitude toward inclusion.

Table 6

Attitudes Toward Inclusion Based on Academic Level of Progress

First- and Second-Year Students       29                                13.69               3.07

*p = .002

1. Does the special education pre-service teachers’ academic level of progress in their undergraduate career (i.e. first-/second-year and third-/fourth year) impact attitude towards inclusion from an academic perspective for students who are academically one year below grade level?

As a means of identifying whether the current level of education among special education pre-service teachers (i.e. first-/second-year students and third-/fourth-year students) impacts attitudes toward the inclusion of students who are academically one year below grade level, a two-sample independent t-test was used. There was no significant difference in variance (p=.655).  However, there was a significant difference in means (p = .000), with the means being greater for the third- and fourth-year pre-service teachers than first- and second-year pre-service teachers (4.82 and 4.10, respectively) (see Table 7). Overall, third- and fourth-year participants had a more positive attitude toward inclusion than first- and second-year participants who were enrolled in a special education program.

Table 7

Attitudes Toward Inclusion of Students with ASD (One Year Below Grade Level) Based on Academic Level of Progress

First- and Second- Year Participants              29                    4.10.                1.08

Third- and Fourth- Year Participants              77                    4.82                 1.04

______________________________________________________________________________

* p = .000

1. Does the special education pre-service teachers’ academic level of progress in their undergraduate career (i.e. first-/second-year and third-/fourth year) impact attitude towards inclusion from an academic perspective for students who are academically two or more years below grade level?

As a means of identifying whether the current level of education among special education pre-service teachers (i.e. first-/second-year students and third-/fourth-year students) impacts attitudes toward the inclusion of students who are academically two or more years below grade level, a two-sample independent t-test was used.  There was a significant difference in variance (p=.001) and a significant difference in means (p = .000), with the means being greater for the third- and fourth-year participants than first- and second-year participants (3.61 and 2.76, respectively) (See Table 8).  Overall, third- and fourth-year special education pre-service teachers had a more positive attitude toward inclusion.

Table 8

Attitudes Toward Inclusion of Students with ASD (Two or More Years Below Grade Level) Based on Academic Level of Progress

First- and Second-Year Participants               29                    2.76                 0.91

* p = .000

**p= .001

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine pre-service teacher candidates’ attitudes toward including PK-12 students with ASD in general education classrooms from an academic perspective according to the following: 1) the level of academic performance of the PK-12 students with ASD; 2) the academic program of study (i.e. major/minor degree programs) and the level of academic performance of the PK-12 students with ASD; and 3) the academic level of progress (among special education pre-service teachers) and the level of academic performance of the PK-12 students with ASD.    

Impact of Level of Academic Achievement for the PK-12 Student with ASD

In evaluating pre-service teachers’ attitudes, the first area of inquiry was to examine the level of academic achievement of PK-12 students with ASD. The researchers asked participants to consider the inclusion of students who were academically one year below grade level and those who were academically two or more years below grade level.  Overall, it was determined that pre-service teachers (special education and general education) were more in favor of including students who were academically one year below grade level. This finding is consistent with the existing research that indicates that teachers appear to be more receptive to including students with “mild” disabilities over those with more complex needs (Forlin & Chambers, 2011). Therefore, it can be determined that a relatively small academic delay is considered more conducive to successful inclusion than a more pronounced academic delay.

Impact of Academic Program of Study and Level of Academic Performance of the PK-12 Students with ASD

In further evaluating pre-service teachers’ attitudes, the researchers examined the impact of the academic program of study.  The analysis yielded a significant difference between first- and second-year special education and first- and second-year general education pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion.  It was determined that general education pre-service teachers were more favorable toward inclusion as compared to first- and second-year special education pre-service teachers. This finding is consistent with the existing research that general education pre-service teachers were more in favor of full inclusion for students with ASD than special education pre-service teachers (Low et al., 2018). 

In examining the results, it is important to consider possible reasons why special educators demonstrated a less positive attitude than general educators.  In this analysis, the researchers examined those pre-service teachers who were at the same level of education (i.e. first- and second-year students).  Since this was the first special education course for all the students, their level of higher education instruction related to special education was similar.  It is possible that previous life experiences that may have influenced their decisions to enroll in a special education program may have also influenced their attitudes toward the inclusion of students with ASD.  It may be possible that they have some type of experience that may have led to preconceived notions surrounding the inclusion of students with disabilities.  For example, they may have a sibling or family member with a disability that helped to shape their opinions about education.  As another example, it’s possible that their interest in special education may have stemmed from educational experiences related to special education (e.g. peer mentoring programs) that they may have been involved in.   

When all pre-service teachers who were first- and second-year students (special education and general education) were asked to consider PK-12 students with ASD who were both academically one year below grade level and two or more years below grade level, no significant difference in attitudes was found.  Since this is an early course in their curriculum, it was possible that they have not developed discerning attitudes about the level of severity related to ASD.

Impact of Level of Education in Conjunction with the Level of Academic Performance of the PK-12 Students with ASD

Lastly, the researchers explored the attitudes of first- and second-year as compared to third- and fourth-year special education pre-service teachers.  The purpose was to identify the possible impact of increased knowledge in the area of special education (obtained from additional coursework and field experiences) on their attitudes towards inclusion.  It was determined that there was a significant difference in their overall attitudes toward inclusion as well as significant differences in attitude based on the severity level (i.e. academically one year below grade level vs. academically two or more years below grade level).  Third- and fourth-year pre-service special education teachers were significantly more favorable for all conditions. This indicates that as special education pre-service teachers progress through their academic program, and subsequently gain more knowledge on inclusion and students with ASD, their attitudes toward inclusion from an academic perspective becomes more positive.   It was possible that increased knowledge (e.g. characteristics of ASD, inclusion practices, evidence-based instructional and assessment practices, and field experiences) help to improve the confidence in the educational community to provide a successful education for PK-12 students with ASD in inclusive settings.

Limitations

While the findings of this study were informative and beneficial to our knowledge surrounding pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward students with ASD in general education, there were limitations of the study.  One limitation of this study is that participants were solely from one institution and were primarily white, middle-class, females ranging from 18-22 years old, so generalizability should be taken with care.  A second limitation is that the impact of education (i.e. those in their first-/second-year vs. third-/fourth-year) on general education pre-service teachers was not examined.  A third limitation of this study is that it examined only the academic factor of including students with ASD in general education.  A fourth limitation of this study is that pre-service teacher candidates likely have a limited depth of knowledge about the characteristics of students with ASD and how these characteristics might impact instruction and educational placement.

Implications for Future Research

The outcomes of this study offer several possibilities for future research. First, it would be beneficial to expand the research sample to include more diverse teacher education populations. This study’s sample included primarily Caucasian females between the ages of 18-22. Although this gender/race/age combination is representative of the majority of pre-service teachers enrolled in these particular teacher preparation programs, a more diverse sample may be indicative of other teacher preparation programs whose pre-service teachers represent various genders, races, and ages. Second, it would be advantageous to examine the impact of education on general education pre-service teachers. Third, it would be beneficial to examine other factors related to including PK-12 students with ASD (e.g. behavior or social) that may affect pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward including students with ASD.

Conclusion

This study sought to examine pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward the inclusion of PK-12 students with ASD in general education from an academic perspective.  Ultimately, the academic program of study and level of undergraduate progress impact pre-service teachers’ attitudes, as does the level of academic performance of the PK-12 student with ASD. 

Although it is the role of the PK-12 student’s multidisciplinary team to decide the most appropriate placement for a student with ASD (e.g. inclusive classroom, self-contained classroom, separate school, or residential facility), many multidisciplinary teams opt for an inclusive setting. As was stated earlier, teachers’ attitudes can be a strong predictor of student performance (Van Laarhoven, et al., 2007; Avramidis & Norwich, 2002; Barton, 1992).  The more positive the teachers’ attitudes toward the inclusion of students with ASD, the higher the likelihood that students with ASD will have a positive and effective educational experience.  Therefore, a primary role of teacher preparation programs should be to foster positive attitudes toward the inclusion of students with ASD, as this population represents the fastest-growing developmental disability in our schools today.                                                        

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About the Authors

Dr. Mary A. Houser and Dr. Tara S. Guerriero are both associate professors of Special Education at West Chester University of Pennsylvania.

Dr. David L. Bolton is an associate professor in the Department of Educational Foundations and Policy Studies at West Chester University of Pennsylvania.

Dr. Esther Smidt is the director of the TESOL program and is an associate professor of TESOL at West Chester University of Pennsylvania.

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