By Carolina Arcaya
This issue of NASET’s Autism Spectrum Disorder series was written by Carolina Arcaya. As the rate of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) increases, teachers have more contact with children diagnosed with ASD, their parents, and their families. Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are characterized by their social interactions and communication challenges and restricted, repetitive behaviors (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Research has shown that these challenges may be stressful for parents and affect the entire family. In general, parents experience more stress associated with raising a child with Autism compared to parents with typically developing children or children with other disabilities (Hayes & Watson, 2013). These challenges influence family relations, careers, leisure time as well as the overall quality of life. Family involvement is directly related to the educational outcomes of students with ASD. Effective communication between parents and teachers is essential for building a school-family partnership and achieving educational goals. Because of the unique set of challenges students with ASD possess, a solid parent-teacher relationship requires being more of a partnership than a relationship, where both parties collaborate and are collectively responsible for the student educational outcomes.
Introduction
As the rate of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) increases, teachers have more contact with children diagnosed with ASD, their parents, and their families. Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are characterized by their social interactions and communication challenges and restricted, repetitive behaviors (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Research has shown that these challenges may be stressful for parents and affect the entire family. In general, parents experience more stress associated with raising a child with Autism compared to parents with typically developing children or children with other disabilities (Hayes & Watson, 2013). These challenges influence family relations, careers, leisure time as well as the overall quality of life.
Family involvement is directly related to the educational outcomes of students with ASD. Effective communication between parents and teachers is essential for building a school-family partnership and achieving educational goals. Because of the unique set of challenges students with ASD possess, a solid parent-teacher relationship requires being more of a partnership than a relationship, where both parties collaborate and are collectively responsible for the student educational outcomes.
Literature Review
Family-school partnerships have been shown to have a substantial impact on student’s success at home and at school (Cheatham & Ostrosky, 2011; Mautone et al., 2015), including the quality of communication between parents and teachers. Multiple studies show the importance of positive parent-teacher relationships for child growth and development. As Santiago (2019) describes, a parent-teacher partnership is marked by collaboration and collective responsibility for educational outcomes and is a particular kind of relationship that requires specific action. As opposed to just a relationship characterized by joining, communication, and cohesion (Vickers & Minke, 1995), a partnership is characterized by shared responsibility and collaboration (Reschly & Christenson, 2012). Santiago (2019) further explains there main areas related to parent-teacher relationships: parent–teacher relationship quality, family educational involvement, and parental problem-solving competence.
Parent-teacher relationship quality
High Parent-teacher relationship quality develops over time. It is characterized by a high degree of connection, adaptability, and joining. Joining is described by shared expectations, support, and dependability (Vickers & Minke, 1995), and it is the most important since it includes mutual trust, availability for problem-solving, and cooperation. Quality parent-teacher relationships have shown to be the foundation for promoting collaborative partnership and child outcomes (Christenson & Sheridan, 2001), and it is crucial for supporting children with disabilities and increase the effectiveness of treatment. Parents and teachers view the quality of their relationships differently. Examining these perceptions may result in information that can support the development of effective approaches and practices (Santiago, 2019).
Furthermore, in a study made by Hsiao et al. (2017) were 236 parents of children with ASD participated identified that family-teacher partnerships directly affect parental satisfaction concerning Family Quality of Life (FQOL). When a strong partnership has been established between the family and the teacher, the teacher value the parents’ opinion about the children’s needs and provides interventions such as how to cope with problem behavior which would improve FQOL for families of children with ASD (Hsiao et al., 2017). In order to promote positive relationships with families, teachers should have frequent, open, and honest communication regarding the child’s progress, performance, and problems in school (Stoner et al., 2005). Studies find that families who reported satisfaction with teacher partnerships would also report more satisfaction with FQOL. Services in school should address the needs of the children and parents in order to improve the quality of life of these families and help parents reduce their stress. Teachers may benefit from including coursework regarding families of children with ASD to understand better how these families work (Hsiao et al., 2017).
Family Education involvement
Family education involvement is defined as “a multidimensional construct that encompasses parenting behaviors that support children’s learning” (Minke et al., 2014, p. 528). It is a mesosystemic influence supported by ecological systems theory (Santiago, 2019). As Demirkaya & Bakkaloglu (2015) describe, there are four basic systems, macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem. These systems are related and affect one another from outermost to innermost. The innermost part, or microsystem, includes family, school, and neighborhood; and the mesosystem shows the interaction among the phenomena of the microsystem. When there is a change in one of the systems, it affects the other systems.
Family involvement comprises three domains: home-based involvement, school-based involvement, and home school communication (Fantuzzo, Tighe, & Childs, 2000). Home-based involvement is identified by the activities, academic or non-academic, that parents do with their child at home. School-based involvement is identified by the activities parents engage in at school, like volunteering in the classroom or attending school events, and home school communication consists of the interactions between the parent and the teacher.
Studies have identified family involvement with higher levels of academic achievement and lower levels of problem behavior; family involvement is likely to enhance treatment effectiveness for children with ASD (M. L. Matson et al., 2009).
One crucial component of the family-centered practice is a partnership in decision-making. Family–school partnerships have been identified as an essential aspect of education in children with Autism. Children with ASD present a variety of behaviors that impact their learning and quality of life in general. Research suggests that a solid partnership may indeed be the best practice for children and family outcomes; in particular effective professional partnerships between parents and teachers may mitigate parental distress and enhance the family quality of life (Davis & Gavidia-Payne, 2009; Summers et al., 2007).
Quality of family and professional partnerships between parents and teachers is related and predictive of feelings of parental empowerment among parents of children with disabilities (Dempsey & Dunst, 2004; Dunst & Dempsey, 2007). While a collaborative consultation between teacher-family shows more improvements in child Individual Education Plan (IEP) goals (Ruble et al., 2010), a troubled family-teacher partnership has been linked to teacher burnout and stress (Billingsley, Pyecha, & Hendricks, 1994; Markow & Martin, 2005).
Understanding the relationship between parent-teacher partnership and child progress can lead to considerations of how teachers prepare for practice in relationship development skills (Eskow et al., 2018). Eskow et al. (2018) stated that children with a solid teacher-parent relationship report more progress for their child across five domains: academic performance, independent living skills, communication skills, relationships with peers, and problematic behavior.
Providing that parent-teacher communication is an essential component of success, collaborative communication is crucial for consistent practices across home and school and, ultimately, enhanced outcomes for children with ASD (Azad & Mandell, 2016). Understanding factors that result in strong parent-teacher partnerships would provide opportunities for professional development in assisting children in achieving academic and social goals. A study made (Azad et al., 2018) where 26 teachers and 49 parents of children with ASD participated indicated that teachers feel they lack time, support, and structure to develop effective partnerships with parents. Likewise, parent-training programs do not provide direct instruction on how to communicate with teachers (Murray et al., 2011). The inability of parents and teachers to communicate effectively will not allow them to develop and implement effective behavior procedures between home and school.
The quality and quantity of communication between parents and teachers is an essential factor for family-school partnership. Consultation is one mechanism used to promote and sustain communication (Azad et al., 2018). Examples of two models of consultation are; behavioral consultation (BC) which focus on working with a consultee to address concerns regarding the child (Bergen & Kratochwill, 1990); or such as conjoint behavioral consultation (CBC), which focus on working with dyads to address cross-contextual concerns for the child (Sheridan & Kratochwill, 2007).
Collaborative models of consultation have also been shown to be effective because they increase the intensity, impact, and sustainability of interventions (Azad et al., 2018). Despite the effectiveness of these models, there are only four published studies (Fallon et al., 2016; Garbacz & McIntyre, 2016; Ray et al., 1999; Wilkinson (2005) that have used CBC to meet the needs of children with ASD, one reason may be that parents and teachers have minimal time and resources to collaborate and CBC is a time-intensive process (Azad et al., 2018). In their study, Azad et al. (2018) test an innovative consultation model, entitled Partners in School. The study sample represented a diverse group of parents and teachers of children with ASD in urban public schools. The goal of this program was to improve parent-teacher communication surrounding the use of EBPs for children with ASD (Azad et al., 2018). Azad et al. (2018) describe the program as a problem-solving model where parents and teachers work collaboratively with a consultant to address the needs of students with ASD. The program consisted of observing parents and teachers with ASD communicate about their child’s concerns and interview them about the best ways to improve communication between them (Azad et al., 2018).
Results of the study suggest that Partners in School could be a promising model for improving parent-teacher partnership and, consequently, student outcomes. Parents and teachers both found significant changes in children’s outcomes. Parents reported a notable reduction in their specific concerns and a significant reduction in non-compliance of the child behaviors; teachers also stated a notable reduction in their specific concerns after participating in the program. This study shows that school-based consultation models may have a meaningful impact on parent-teacher partnership and, consequently, positively affect children’s educational outcomes.
Parental competence in problem-solving
An important aspect of parent self-efficacy in relation to child functioning is parental competence in problem-solving (Santiago, 2019), or the extent to which parents believe in their ability to solve problems related to their child’s education (Sheridan et al., 2013).
Problem-solving is considered a form of communication and is essential for successful parent-teacher relationships. It is the primary method of designing, implementing, and evaluating school-based interventions (Erchul & Martens, 2010). Effective parent-teacher communication involves problem-solving concerns about students (Azad et al., 2016), and it is an essential prerequisite for establishing and sustaining successful family-school partnerships (Cheatham & Ostrosky, 2011; Dunst, 2000). It requires parents and teachers to engage in collaborative efforts to address students’ challenges at home and at school (Mautone, Marcelle, Tresco, & Power, 2015; Sheridan & Kratochwill, 2008). Successful problem solving includes communicating in a clear and concise manner and understanding the demands placed on the other person (Bergan, 1977; Bergan & Kratochwill, 1990).
As Azad et al. (2016) state, it is imperative to examine problem-solving behavior in parents and teachers of children with disabilities. In a study conducted (Azad et al., 2016) were 39 parent-teacher dyads of children with ASD participated show parents and teachers displayed little of the core elements of problem-solving but moderate levels of behaviors that facilitated the problem-solving process. Teachers displayed more problem-solving than parents and, both parents and teachers reported engaging in more problem-solving than were observed during their interaction. Findings on the research also show that teachers speak more frequently than parents; parent participation has been found to be as low as 6.5 minutes in a 41.5-minute discussion (Vaughn, Bos, Harrell, & Lasky, 1988). Parents often assume the listening role during IEP meetings and are presented with finished assessment reports and treatment plans, leaving little opportunity for parents’ feedback (Tucker&Schwartz, 2013). Research has found that this hierarchical relationship in which teachers assume greater control is likely an impediment to establishing collaborative relationships between parents and teachers (Cheatham & Ostrosky, 2011; Kalyanpur, Harry, & Skrtic, 2000). Collaborative approaches to problem-solving are a critical form of communication for addressing and identifying strategies in children with disabilities; for parents and children with ASD, parent–teacher problem-solving processes can have an impact similar to that of a direct intervention (Santiago 2019).
Research has found that parental school involvement is directly related to parent-school satisfaction. The federal law Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) mandates that parents of children with disabilities be involved in their children’s education. As Zablotsky et al. (2012) state, regardless of these changes, the relationship between parents with children with Autism and teachers remains unexplored and undervalued. A study (Zablotsky et al., 2012), which compared how parents of children with ASD differ from parents of the general population, concluded they differ in some important ways. Their findings reveal that parents from children with ASD were more likely to attend parent-teacher conferences, meet with the school guidance counselor, and help their children with their homework. Findings also reported families being less satisfied with the level of communication from the school regarding their child’s placement in a given classroom or group (Zablotsky et al., 2012). These findings are related to the high level of physical and mental disabilities of children with ASD. Findings also report that parents of children with ASD with high rates of emotional and behavioral disturbances and mental retardation had higher levels of stress than parents with ASD alone, which might directly impact parent’s level of school involvement (Zablotsky et al., 2012). In conclusion, parent involvement was directly related to parent satisfaction for all participants, even including parents from the general population.
Conclusion
Literature Review reveals the importance of parent-teacher partnership and students with ASD academic and social outcomes. This is particularly true for students with ASD, where communication and social skills can be very limited. Effective, clear, and open communication where parents and teachers work together towards achieving student goals can significantly change the student development and future quality of life of the student and their family. Early intervention has been identified as critical in children with ASD, only by the teacher and parent communicating effectively; strategies to improve academic and social outcomes can be implemented across environments, assuring generalization and improving their future quality of life. In order for teachers to be able to feel comfortable and prepared to deal with families with ASD, education on characteristics and strategies should be provided. Because of the unique characteristics of children with ASD, teachers should be aware of evidence-based practices that can help these children succeed and reduce the family’s stress level by offering important and useful information and resources.
References
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.).Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Azad, G.F., & Mandell, D. S. (2016). Concerns of parents and teachers of children with
Autism in elementary school. Autism, 20(4), 435–441. doi:10.1177/1362361315588199
Azad GF, Kim M, Marcus SC, Mandell DS, Sheridan SM. (2016). Parent-Teacher Communication about Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Examination of Collaborative Problem-Solving. Psychol Sch. 2016 Dec;53(10):1071-1084. doi: 10.1002/pits.21976. Epub 2016 Oct 28. PMID: 28392604; PMCID: PMC5383212.
Azad GF, Marcus SC, Sheridan SM, Mandell DS. (2018) Partners in School: An Innovative Parent-Teacher Consultation Model for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. J Educ Psychol Consult. 2018;28(4):460-486. doi: 10.1080/10474412.2018.1431550. Epub 2018 Feb 8. PMID: 30713408; PMCID: PMC6350905.
Bergan, J. R. (1977). Behavioral consultation. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
Bergan, J. R., & Kratochwill, T. R. (1990). Behavioral consultation and therapy. New York, NY: Springer.
Billingsley, B., Pyecha, J., & Hendricks, M. B. (1994). Improving the retention of special education teachers: Year 3 report. Durham, NC: Research Triangle Institute, Center for Research in Education.
Cheatham,G. A.,&Ostrosky, M. M. (2011).Whose expertise?: An analysis of advice giving in early childhood parent-teacher conferences. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 25, 24–44.
Christenson, S. L., & Sheridan, S. M. (2001). Schools and families: Creating essential connections for learning. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Davis, K., & Gavidia-Payne, S. (2009). The impact of child, family, and professional support characteristics on the quality of life in familiesof young children with disabilities. Journal of Intellectual &Developmental Disability, 34, 153–162. doi:10.1080/13668250902874608
Demirkaya, Pervin & Bakkalo?lu, Hatice. (2015). Examining the Student-Teacher Relationships of Children Both With and Without Special Needs in Preschool Classrooms. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice. 15. 159-175. 10.12738/estp.2015.1.2590
Dunst, C. J. (2000). Revisiting “Rethinking early intervention.” Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 20, 95–104
Dempsey, I., & Dunst, C. J. (2004). Help giving styles and parent empowerment in families with a young child with a disability. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 29, 40–51. doi:10.1080/13668250410001662874
Dunst, C. J., & Dempsey, I. (2007). Family-professional partnerships and parenting competence, confidence, and enjoyment. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 54, 305–318. doi:10.1080/10349120701488772
Erchul, W. P., & Martens, B. K. (2010). School consultation: Conceptual and empirical bases of practice. Springer Science & Business Media. New York City:New York.
Eskow, K. G., Summers, J. A., Chasson, G. S., & Mitchell, R. (2018). The association between family-teacher partnership satisfaction and outcomes of academic progress and quality of life for children/youth with Autism. Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities, 15(1), 16-25. https://doi.org/10.1111/jppi.12221.
Fallon, L. M., Collier-Meek, M. A., Sanetti, L. M., Feinberg, A. B., & Kratochwill, T. R. (2016). Implementation planning to promote parents’ treatment integrity of behavioral interventions for children with Autism. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 26 (1), 87–109. doi:10.1080/10474412.2015.1039124
Fantuzzo, J., Tighe, E., & Childs, S. (2000). Family Involvement Questionnaire: A multivariate assessment of family participation in early childhood education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(2), 367–376. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.92.2.367
Hayes, S. A., & Watson, S. L. (2013). The impact of parenting stress: A meta-analysis of studies comparing the experience of parenting stress in parents of children with and without autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(3), 629–642. doi: 10.1007/s10803-012-1604-y
Hsiao YJ, Higgins K, Pierce T, Whitby PJS, Tandy RD. Parental stress, family quality of life, and family-teacher partnerships: Families of children with autism spectrum disorder. Res Dev Disabil. 2017 Nov;70:152-162. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2017.08.013. Epub 2017 Sep 21. PMID: 28942105.
Kalyanpur, M., Harry, B., & Skrtic, T. (2000). Equity and advocacy expectations of culturally diverse families’ participation in special education. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 47, 119–136.
Markow, D., & Martin, S. (2005). The MetLife survey of the American teacher: Transitions and the role of supportive relationships: A survey of teachers, principals, and students. Received from www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet
Matson, M. L., Mahan, S., & Matson, J. L. (2009). Parent training: A review of methods for children with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 3(4), 868–875. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2009.02.003
Mautone, J. A., Marcelle, E., Tresco, K. E., & Power, T. J. (2015). Assessing the quality of parent-teacher relationships for students with ADHD. Psychology in the Schools, 52, 196–207.
Minke, K. M., Sheridan, S. M., Kim, E. M., Ryoo, J. H., & Koziol, N. A. (2014).
Congruence in parent–teacher relationships. The role of shared perceptions. The Elementary School Journal, 114(4), 527–546. doi: 10.1086/675637
Murray, M. M., Ackerman-Spain, K., Williams, E. U., & Ryley, A. T. (2011). Knowledge is power: Empowering the autism community through parent-professional training. The School Community Journal, 21, 19–36.
Ray, K. P., Skinner, C. H., & Watson, T. S. (1999). Transferring stimulus control via momentum to increase compliance in a student with Autism: A demonstration of collaborative consultation. School Psychology Review, 28(4), 622–628.
Reschly, A. L., & Christenson, S. L. (2012). Moving from ‘context matters’ to engaged partnerships with families. Journal of Educational & Psychological Consultation, 22 (1–2), 62–78. doi: 10.1080/10474412.2011.649650
Ruble, L. A., Dalrymple, N. J., & McGrew, J. H. (2010). The effects of consultation on individualized education program outcomes for young children with Autism: The collaborative model for promoting competence and success. Journal of Early Intervention, 32, 286–301. doi:10.1177/1053815110382973
Santiago T. Examining Parent–Teacher Relationship Quality and Family Involvement for
Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Department of Special Education and Clinical Sciences. University of Oregon, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, June 2019. 10827931.
Sheridan, S. M., & Kratochwill, T. (2007). Conjoint behavioral consultation: Promoting family school connections and interventions (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Springer.
Sheridan, S. M., & Kratochwill, T. R. (2008). Conjoint behavioral consultation. New York, NY: Springer
Sheridan, S. M., Ryoo, J. H., Garbacz, A., Kunz, G. M., & Chumney, F. L. (2013). The efficacy of conjoint behavioral consultation on parents and children in the home setting: Results of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of School Psychology, 51, 717–733. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2013.09.003
Stoner, J. B., Bock, S. J., Thompson, J. R., Angell, M. E., Heyl, B. S., & Crowley, E. P. (2005). Welcome to our world: Parent perceptions of interactions between parents of young children with ASD and education professionals. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 20, 39–51.
Tucker, V., & Schwartz, I. (2013). Parents’ perspectives of collaboration with school professionals: Barriers and facilitators to successful partnerships in planning for students with ASD. School Mental Health, 5, 3–14.
Vaughn, S., Bos, C. S., Harrell, J. E., & Lasky, B. A. (1988). Parent participation in the initial placement/IEP conference ten years after mandated involvement. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21, 82–89.
Vickers, H. S., & Minke, K. M. (1995). Exploring parent–teacher relationships: Joining and communication to others. School Psychology Quarterly, 10(2), 133–150. doi: 10.1037/h0088300
Wilkinson, L. A. (2005). Supporting the inclusion of a student with asperger syndrome: A case study using conjoint behavioural consultation and self-management. Educational Psychology in Practice, 21(4), 307–326. doi:10.1080/02667360500344914
Zablotsky, Benjamin & Boswell, Katelyn & Smith, Christopher. (2012). An Evaluation of School Involvement and Satisfaction of Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. American journal on intellectual and developmental disabilities. 117. 316-30. 10.1352/1944-7558-117.4.316.